








                 An Introduction to the C shell


                           William Joy
               (revised for 4.3BSD by Mark Seiden)
                    Computer Science Division
    Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
               University of California, Berkeley
                   Berkeley, California 94720


                            ABSTRACT

          Csh  is  a  new  command  language interpreter for
     UNIX(R) systems.   It  incorporates  good  features  of
     other  shells  and  a  history mechanism similar to the
     redo of INTERLISP.  While incorporating  many  features
     of  other  shells  which  make  writing  shell programs
     (shell scripts) easier, most of the features unique  to
     csh are designed more for the interactive UNIX user.

          UNIX users who have read a general introduction to
     the system will find a valuable  basic  explanation  of
     the  shell  here.  Simple terminal interaction with csh
     is possible after reading just  the  first  section  of
     this   document.   The  second  section  describes  the
     shell's capabilities which you can  explore  after  you
     have  begun to become acquainted with the shell.  Later
     sections introduce features which are useful,  but  not
     necessary for all users of the shell.

          Additional  information includes an appendix list-
     ing special characters of the shell and a  glossary  of
     terms and commands introduced in this manual.


Introduction

     A  shell is a command language interpreter.  Csh is the name
of one particular command interpreter on UNIX.  The primary  pur-
pose  of  csh  is  to translate command lines typed at a terminal
into system actions, such as invocation of other  programs.   Csh
is  a user program just like any you might write.  Hopefully, csh
will be a very useful program for you  in  interacting  with  the
UNIX system.

     In  addition  to  this document, you will want to refer to a
copy of the UNIX User Reference Manual.  The csh documentation in
section  1  of the manual provides a full description of all fea-
tures of the shell and is the definitive reference for  questions
about the shell.









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     Many words in this document are shown in italics.  These are
important words; names of commands, and words which have  special
meaning  in discussing the shell and UNIX.  Many of the words are
defined in a glossary at the end of this document.  If you  don't
know what is meant by a word, you should look for it in the glos-
sary.

Acknowledgements

     Numerous people have provided good input about previous ver-
sions  of  csh and aided in its debugging and in the debugging of
its documentation.  I would  especially  like  to  thank  Michael
Ubell  who  made  the  crucial  observation that history commands
could be done well over the word structure  of  input  text,  and
implemented  a prototype history mechanism in an older version of
the shell.  Eric Allman has also provided a large number of  use-
ful  comments on the shell, helping to unify those concepts which
are present and to identify and eliminate useless and  marginally
useful  features.   Mike  O'Brien  suggested the pathname hashing
mechanism which speeds command execution.  Jim Kulp added the job
control and directory stack primitives and added their documenta-
tion to this introduction.









































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1.  Terminal usage of the shell

1.1.  The basic notion of commands

     A shell in UNIX acts mostly as a medium through which  other
programs  are  invoked.   While it has a set of builtin functions
which it performs directly, most commands cause execution of pro-
grams  that  are,  in  fact, external to the shell.  The shell is
thus distinguished from the command interpreters of other systems
both  by the fact that it is just a user program, and by the fact
that it is used almost exclusively as a  mechanism  for  invoking
other programs.

     Commands  in the UNIX system consist of a list of strings or
words interpreted as a command name followed by arguments.   Thus
the command

     mail bill

consists  of two words.  The first word mail names the command to
be executed, in this case the mail program which  sends  messages
to  other  users.   The  shell  uses  the  name of the command in
attempting to execute it for you.  It will look in  a  number  of
directories  for  a  file with the name mail which is expected to
contain the mail program.

     The rest of the words of the command are given as  arguments
to the command itself when it is executed.  In this case we spec-
ified also the argument bill which is  interpreted  by  the  mail
program  to be the name of a user to whom mail is to be sent.  In
normal terminal usage we might use the mail command as follows.

     % mail bill
     I have a question about the csh documentation.
     My document seems to be missing page 5.
     Does a page five exist?
          Bill
     EOT
     %


     Here we typed a message to send to bill and ended this  mes-
sage  with  a  ^D  which sent an end-of-file to the mail program.
(Here and throughout this document, the notation ``^x'' is to  be
read ``control-x'' and represents the striking of the x key while
the control key is held down.)  The mail program then echoed  the
characters  `EOT' and transmitted our message.  The characters `%
' were printed before and after the mail command by the shell  to
indicate that input was needed.

     After  typing  the `% ' prompt the shell was reading command
input from our terminal.   We  typed  a  complete  command  `mail
bill'.   The  shell  then executed the mail program with argument
bill and went dormant waiting  for  it  to  complete.   The  mail









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program  then  read input from our terminal until we signalled an
end-of-file via typing a ^D after which the  shell  noticed  that
mail had completed and signaled us that it was ready to read from
the terminal again by printing another `% ' prompt.

     This is the essential pattern of all interaction  with  UNIX
through  the shell.  A complete command is typed at the terminal,
the shell executes the command and when this execution completes,
it prompts for a new command.  If you run the editor for an hour,
the shell will patiently wait for you to finish editing and  obe-
diently prompt you again whenever you finish editing.

     An  example  of  a useful command you can execute now is the
tset command, which sets the default erase and kill characters on
your terminal - the erase character erases the last character you
typed and the kill character erases  the  entire  line  you  have
entered  so  far.   By default, the erase character is the delete
key (equivalent to `^?')  and the kill character is  `^U'.   Some
people  prefer  to  make  the  erase  character the backspace key
(equivalent to `^H').  You can make this be true by typing

     tset -e

which tells the program tset to set the erase character to tset's
default setting for this character (a backspace).

1.2.  Flag arguments

     A  useful  notion in UNIX is that of a flag argument.  While
many arguments to commands specify file names or user names, some
arguments  rather  specify  an optional capability of the command
which you wish to invoke.  By convention,  such  arguments  begin
with the character `-' (hyphen).  Thus the command

     ls

will  produce  a  list of the files in the current working direc-
tory.  The option -s is the size option, and

     ls -s

causes ls to also give, for each file the size  of  the  file  in
blocks of 512 characters.  The manual section for each command in
the UNIX reference manual gives the available  options  for  each
command.   The ls command has a large number of useful and inter-
esting options.  Most other commands have either  no  options  or
only  one or two options.  It is hard to remember options of com-
mands which are not used very frequently, so most UNIX  utilities
perform only one or two functions rather than having a large num-
ber of hard to remember options.













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1.3.  Output to files

     Commands that normally read input or  write  output  on  the
terminal  can also be executed with this input and/or output done
to a file.

     Thus suppose we wish to save the  current  date  in  a  file
called `now'.  The command

     date

will print the current date on our terminal.  This is because our
terminal is the default standard output for the date command  and
the  date  command  prints  the date on its standard output.  The
shell lets us redirect the standard output of a command through a
notation  using  the  metacharacter  `>' and the name of the file
where output is to be placed.  Thus the command

     date > now

runs the date command such that its standard output is  the  file
`now'  rather  than  the  terminal.  Thus this command places the
current date and time into the file `now'.  It  is  important  to
know  that the date command was unaware that its output was going
to a file rather than to the terminal.  The shell performed  this
redirection before the command began executing.

     One other thing to note here is that the file `now' need not
have existed before the date  command  was  executed;  the  shell
would have created the file if it did not exist.  And if the file
did exist?  If it had existed previously these previous  contents
would  have  been  discarded!  A shell option noclobber exists to
prevent this from happening accidentally; it is discussed in sec-
tion 2.2.

     The  system  normally  keeps files which you create with `>'
and all other files.  Thus the default is for files to be  perma-
nent.   If  you wish to create a file which will be removed auto-
matically, you can begin its name  with  a  `#'  character,  this
`scratch'  character  denotes  the  fact  that the file will be a
scratch  file.*  The system will remove such files after a couple
of days, or sooner if file space becomes very  tight.   Thus,  in
running  the date command above, we don't really want to save the
output forever, so we would more likely do

-----------
*Note that if your erase character is a `#', you  will
have to precede the `#' with a `\'.  The fact that the
`#' character is  the  old  (pre-CRT)  standard  erase
character means that it seldom appears in a file name,
and allows this convention  to  be  used  for  scratch
files.   If  you are using a CRT, your erase character
should be a ^H, as we demonstrated in section 1.1  how
this could be set up.









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     date > #now


1.4.  Metacharacters in the shell

     The shell has a large number  of  special  characters  (like
`>')  which  indicate special functions.  We say that these nota-
tions have syntactic and semantic meaning to the shell.  In  gen-
eral,  most  characters which are neither letters nor digits have
special meaning to the shell.  We shall shortly learn a means  of
quotation which allows us to use metacharacters without the shell
treating them in any special way.

     Metacharacters normally have effect only when the  shell  is
reading  our  input.   We  need  not  worry  about  placing shell
metacharacters in a letter we are sending via mail,  or  when  we
are  typing in text or data to some other program.  Note that the
shell is only reading input  when  it  has  prompted  with  `%  '
(although we can type our input even before it prompts).

1.5.  Input from files; pipelines

     We  learned  above  how to redirect the standard output of a
command to a file.  It is also possible to redirect the  standard
input  of  a  command  from  a file.  This is not often necessary
since most commands will read from a file whose name is given  as
an argument.  We can give the command

     sort < data

to  run  the  sort command with standard input, where the command
normally reads its input, from the file `data'.   We  would  more
likely say

     sort data

letting  the  sort  command open the file `data' for input itself
since this is less to type.

     We should note that if we just typed

     sort

then the sort program would sort lines from its  standard  input.
Since we did not redirect the standard input, it would sort lines
as we typed them on the terminal until we typed a ^D to  indicate
an end-of-file.

     A most useful capability is the ability to combine the stan-
dard output of one command with the standard  input  of  another,
i.e.  to run the commands in a sequence known as a pipeline.  For
instance the command











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     ls -s

normally produces a list of the files in our directory  with  the
size  of  each in blocks of 512 characters.  If we are interested
in learning which of our files is largest we  may  wish  to  have
this sorted by size rather than by name, which is the default way
in which ls sorts.  We could look at the many options  of  ls  to
see  if  there was an option to do this but would eventually dis-
cover that there is not.  Instead we can use a couple  of  simple
options  of the sort command, combining it with ls to get what we
want.

     The -n option of sort specifies a numeric sort  rather  than
an alphabetic sort.  Thus

     ls -s | sort -n

specifies  that  the output of the ls command run with the option
-s is to be piped to the command sort run with the  numeric  sort
option.   This  would give us a sorted list of our files by size,
but with the smallest first.  We could then use  the  -r  reverse
sort option and the head command in combination with the previous
command doing

     ls -s | sort -n -r | head -5

Here we have taken a list of  our  files  sorted  alphabetically,
each  with  the size in blocks.  We have run this to the standard
input of the sort  command  asking  it  to  sort  numerically  in
reverse  order  (largest  first).   This output has then been run
into the command head which gives us the  first  few  lines.   In
this  case  we  have asked head for the first 5 lines.  Thus this
command gives us the names and sizes of our 5 largest files.

     The notation introduced above is called the pipe  mechanism.
Commands  separated  by  `|' characters are connected together by
the shell and the standard output of each is run into  the  stan-
dard  input of the next.  The leftmost command in a pipeline will
normally take its standard input from the terminal and the right-
most will place its standard output on the terminal.  Other exam-
ples of pipelines will be given later when we discuss the history
mechanism;  one important use of pipes which is illustrated there
is in the routing of information to the line printer.

1.6.  Filenames

     Many commands to be executed will need the names of files as
arguments.  UNIX pathnames consist of a number of components sep-
arated by `/'.  Each component except the last names a  directory
in  which  the  next  component resides, in effect specifying the
path of directories to follow to reach the file.  Thus the  path-
name











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     /etc/motd

specifies  a  file in the directory `etc' which is a subdirectory
of the root directory `/'.  Within this directory the file  named
is `motd' which stands for `message of the day'.  A pathname that
begins with a slash is said to be an absolute pathname  since  it
is  specified from the absolute top of the entire directory hier-
archy of the system (the root).  Pathnames  which  do  not  begin
with  `/'  are  interpreted  as  starting  in the current working
directory, which is, by default, your home directory and  can  be
changed  dynamically  by  the  cd change directory command.  Such
pathnames are said to be relative to the working directory  since
they  are found by starting in the working directory and descend-
ing to lower levels of directories  for  each  component  of  the
pathname.   If  the  pathname contains no slashes at all then the
file is contained in the working directory itself and  the  path-
name  is merely the name of the file in this directory.  Absolute
pathnames have no relation to the working directory.

     Most filenames consist of a number of  alphanumeric  charac-
ters and `.'s (periods).  In fact, all printing characters except
`/' (slash) may appear in filenames.  It is inconvenient to  have
most non-alphabetic characters in filenames because many of these
have special meaning to the shell.  The character `.' (period) is
not  a  shell-metacharacter  and  is  often  used to separate the
extension of a file name from the base of the name.  Thus

     prog.c prog.o prog.errs prog.output

are four related files.  They share a base portion of a  name  (a
base  portion  being  that  part  of the name that is left when a
trailing `.' and following  characters  which  are  not  `.'  are
stripped  off).   The  file  `prog.c' might be the source for a C
program, the file `prog.o' the  corresponding  object  file,  the
file  `prog.errs'  the errors resulting from a compilation of the
program and the file `prog.output' the output of  a  run  of  the
program.

     If  we  wished to refer to all four of these files in a com-
mand, we could use the notation

     prog.*

This expression is expanded by the shell, before the  command  to
which  it  is an argument is executed, into a list of names which
begin with `prog.'.  The character `*' here matches any  sequence
(including the empty sequence) of characters in a file name.  The
names which match are alphabetically sorted  and  placed  in  the
argument list of the command.  Thus the command

     echo prog.*

will echo the names










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     prog.c prog.errs prog.o prog.output

Note  that  the  names  are in sorted order here, and a different
order than we listed them above.  The echo command receives  four
words  as  arguments,  even  though  we only typed one word as as
argument directly.  The four words  were  generated  by  filename
expansion of the one input word.

     Other  notations  for filename expansion are also available.
The character `?' matches any single  character  in  a  filename.
Thus

     echo ? ?? ???

will  echo  a  line  of filenames; first those with one character
names, then those with two character  names,  and  finally  those
with  three  character  names.   The names of each length will be
independently sorted.

     Another mechanism  consists  of  a  sequence  of  characters
between  `[' and `]'.  This metasequence matches any single char-
acter from the enclosed set.  Thus

     prog.[co]

will match

     prog.c prog.o

in the example above.  We can also place two characters around  a
`-' in this notation to denote a range.  Thus

     chap.[1-5]

might match files

     chap.1 chap.2 chap.3 chap.4 chap.5

if they existed.  This is shorthand for

     chap.[12345]

and otherwise equivalent.

     An  important  point  to  note is that if a list of argument
words to a command (an argument list) contains filename expansion
syntax,  and if this filename expansion syntax fails to match any
existing file names, then the shell considers this to be an error
and prints a diagnostic

     No match.

and does not execute the command.










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     Another  very important point is that files with the charac-
ter `.' at the beginning are treated specially.  Neither  `*'  or
`?'  or the `[' `]' mechanism will match it.  This prevents acci-
dental matching of the filenames `.' and  `..'   in  the  working
directory  which  have  special meaning to the system, as well as
other files such as .cshrc which are not  normally  visible.   We
will discuss the special role of the file .cshrc later.

     Another  filename  expansion  mechanism  gives access to the
pathname of the home directory of  other  users.   This  notation
consists  of the character `~' (tilde) followed by another user's
login name.  For instance the word `~bill' would map to the path-
name   `/usr/bill'   if   the   home  directory  for  `bill'  was
`/usr/bill'.  Since, on  large  systems,  users  may  have  login
directories  scattered over many different disk volumes with dif-
ferent prefix directory names, this notation  provides  a  conve-
nient way of accessing the files of other users.

     A  special  case  of  this notation consists of a `~' alone,
e.g. `~/mbox'.  This notation is expanded by the shell  into  the
file  `mbox'  in  your home directory, i.e. into `/usr/bill/mbox'
for me on Ernie Co-vax, the UCB Computer Science  Department  VAX
machine, where this document was prepared.  This can be very use-
ful if you have used cd to change to another directory  and  have
found a file you wish to copy using cp.  If I give the command

     cp thatfile ~

the shell will expand this command to

     cp thatfile /usr/bill

since my home directory is /usr/bill.

     There  also  exists a mechanism using the characters `{' and
`}' for abbreviating a set of words which have common  parts  but
cannot  be  abbreviated  by the above mechanisms because they are
not files, are the names of files which do not yet exist, are not
thus  conveniently  described.   This mechanism will be described
much later, in section 4.2, as it is used less frequently.

1.7.  Quotation

     We have already seen a number of metacharacters used by  the
shell.  These metacharacters pose a problem in that we cannot use
them directly as parts of words.  Thus the command

     echo *

will not echo the character `*'.  It will either echo  an  sorted
list  of filenames in the current working directory, or print the
message `No match' if there are no files in  the  working  direc-
tory.










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     The  recommended  mechanism for placing characters which are
neither numbers, digits, `/', `.' or `-' in an argument word to a
command  is  to  enclose it with single quotation characters `'',
i.e.

     echo '*'

There is one special character `!' which is used by  the  history
mechanism  of the shell and which cannot be escaped by placing it
within `'' characters.  It and the character `''  itself  can  be
preceded by a single `\' to prevent their special meaning.  Thus

     echo \'\!

prints

     '!

These two mechanisms suffice to place any printing character into
a word which is an argument to a shell command.  They can be com-
bined, as in

     echo \''*'

which prints

     '*

since  the  first  `\'  escaped  the  first  `''  and the `*' was
enclosed between `'' characters.

1.8.  Terminating commands

     When you are executing a command and the  shell  is  waiting
for  it  to  complete there are several ways to force it to stop.
For instance if you type the command

     cat /etc/passwd

the system will print a copy of a list of all users of the system
on your terminal.  This is likely to continue for several minutes
unless you stop it.  You can send an INTERRUPT signal to the  cat
command  by typing ^C on your terminal.*  Since cat does not take
any precautions to avoid or  otherwise  handle  this  signal  the
INTERRUPT will cause it to terminate.  The shell notices that cat
has terminated and prompts you again  with  `%  '.   If  you  hit
INTERRUPT  again,  the shell will just repeat its prompt since it
handles INTERRUPT signals and chooses to continue to execute com-
mands  rather than terminating like cat did, which would have the
effect of logging you out.
-----------
*On  some older Unix systems the DEL or RUBOUT key has
the same effect. "stty all" will tell you the INTR key
value.









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     Another way in which many programs terminate  is  when  they
get an end-of-file from their standard input.  Thus the mail pro-
gram in the first example above was terminated when we typed a ^D
which  generates  an  end-of-file  from  the standard input.  The
shell also  terminates  when  it  gets  an  end-of-file  printing
`logout';  UNIX  then  logs you off the system.  Since this means
that typing too many ^D's can accidentally log us off, the  shell
has  a mechanism for preventing this.  This ignoreeof option will
be discussed in section 2.2.

     If a command has its standard input redirected from a  file,
then  it  will normally terminate when it reaches the end of this
file.  Thus if we execute

     mail bill < prepared.text

the mail command will terminate without our typing a ^D.  This is
because it read to the end-of-file of our file `prepared.text' in
which we placed a message for `bill' with an editor program.   We
could also have done

     cat prepared.text | mail bill

since  the  cat  command would then have written the text through
the pipe to the standard input of the mail command.  When the cat
command  completed  it  would  have  terminated, closing down the
pipeline and the mail command would have received an  end-of-file
from  it  and  terminated.  Using a pipe here is more complicated
than redirecting input so we would  more  likely  use  the  first
form.   These commands could also have been stopped by sending an
INTERRUPT.

     Another possibility for stopping a command is to suspend its
execution  temporarily, with the possibility of continuing execu-
tion later.  This is done by sending a STOP signal via  typing  a
^Z.   This  signal  causes  all  commands running on the terminal
(usually one but more if a pipeline is executing) to become  sus-
pended.   The  shell  notices  that the command(s) have been sus-
pended, types `Stopped' and then prompts for a new command.   The
previously  executing  command  has been suspended, but otherwise
unaffected by the STOP signal.  Any other commands  can  be  exe-
cuted  while  the  original  command remains suspended.  The sus-
pended command can be continued using  the  fg  command  with  no
arguments.   The shell will then retype the command to remind you
which command is being continued, and cause the command to resume
execution.   Unless  any input files in use by the suspended com-
mand have been changed in the meantime,  the  suspension  has  no
effect  whatsoever on the execution of the command.  This feature
can be very useful during editing,  when  you  need  to  look  at
another  file before continuing. An example of command suspension
follows.












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     % mail harold
     Someone just copied a big file into my directory and its name is
     ^Z
     Stopped
     % ls
     funnyfile
     prog.c
     prog.o
     % jobs
     [1]  + Stopped   mail harold
     % fg
     mail harold
     funnyfile. Do you know who did it?
     EOT
     %

In this example someone was sending a message to Harold and  for-
got  the name of the file he wanted to mention.  The mail command
was suspended by typing ^Z.  When the shell noticed that the mail
program  was suspended, it typed `Stopped' and prompted for a new
command.  Then the ls command was typed to find out the  name  of
the file.  The jobs command was run to find out which command was
suspended. At this time the fg command was typed to continue exe-
cution  of  the mail program.  Input to the mail program was then
continued and ended with a ^D which indicated the end of the mes-
sage  at which time the mail program typed EOT.  The jobs command
will show which commands are suspended.  The ^Z  should  only  be
typed  at  the  beginning of a line since everything typed on the
current line is discarded when a signal is  sent  from  the  key-
board.   This  also happens on INTERRUPT, and QUIT signals.  More
information on suspending jobs and controlling them is  given  in
section 2.6.

     If  you  write  or run programs which are not fully debugged
then it may be necessary  to  stop  them  somewhat  ungracefully.
This  can be done by sending them a QUIT signal, sent by typing a
^\.  This will usually provoke the shell  to  produce  a  message
like:

     Quit (Core dumped)

indicating  that a file `core' has been created containing infor-
mation about the running program's state when it  terminated  due
to  the QUIT signal.  You can examine this file yourself, or for-
ward information to the maintainer of the program telling him/her
where the core file is.

     If you run background commands (as explained in section 2.6)
then these commands will ignore INTERRUPT and QUIT signals at the
terminal.   To stop them you must use the kill command.  See sec-
tion 2.6 for an example.

     If you want to examine the output of a command without  hav-
ing it move off the screen as the output of the









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     cat /etc/passwd

command will, you can use the command

     more /etc/passwd

The  more  program pauses after each complete screenful and types
`--More--' at which point you can hit  a  space  to  get  another
screenful,  a  return to get another line, a `?' to get some help
on other commands, or a `q' to end the  more  program.   You  can
also use more as a filter, i.e.

     cat /etc/passwd | more

works just like the more simple more command above.

     For  stopping  output of commands not involving more you can
use the ^S key to stop the typeout.  The typeout will resume when
you  hit  ^Q or any other key, but ^Q is normally used because it
only restarts the output and does not become input to the program
which is running.  This works well on low-speed terminals, but at
9600 baud it is hard to type ^S and ^Q fast  enough  to  paginate
the output nicely, and a program like more is usually used.

     An  additional  possibility  is  to  use the ^O flush output
character; when this character is typed, all output from the cur-
rent  command  is thrown away (quickly) until the next input read
occurs or until the next shell prompt.  This can be used to allow
a command to complete without having to suffer through the output
on a slow terminal; ^O is a toggle, so flushing can be turned off
by typing ^O again while output is being flushed.

1.9.  What now?

     We  have so far seen a number of mechanisms of the shell and
learned a lot about the way in which it operates.  The  remaining
sections will go yet further into the internals of the shell, but
you will surely want to try using the shell  before  you  go  any
further.  To try it you can log in to UNIX and type the following
command to the system:

     chsh myname /bin/csh

Here `myname' should be replaced by the name  you  typed  to  the
system  prompt  of `login:' to get onto the system.  Thus I would
use `chsh bill /bin/csh'.  You only have  to  do  this  once;  it
takes  effect at next login.  You are now ready to try using csh.

     Before you do the `chsh' command, the shell  you  are  using
when  you log into the system is `/bin/sh'.  In fact, much of the
above discussion is applicable to `/bin/sh'.   The  next  section
will  introduce  many  features  particular  to csh so you should
change your shell to csh before you begin reading it.










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2.  Details on the shell for terminal users

2.1.  Shell startup and termination

     When you login, the shell is started by the system  in  your
home  directory and begins by reading commands from a file .cshrc
in this directory.  All shells which you may  start  during  your
terminal  session  will  read  from this file.  We will later see
what kinds of commands are usefully placed  there.   For  now  we
need not have this file and the shell does not complain about its
absence.

     A login shell, executed after you login to the system, will,
after  it  reads  commands from .cshrc, read commands from a file
.login also in your home directory.  This file contains  commands
which  you wish to do each time you login to the UNIX system.  My
.login file looks something like:

     set ignoreeof
     set mail=(/var/mail/bill)
     echo "${prompt}users" ; users
     alias ts \
          'set noglob ; eval `tset -s -m dialup:c100rv4pna -m plugboard:?hp2621nl *`';
     ts; stty intr ^C kill ^U crt
     set time=15 history=10
     msgs -f
     if (-e $mail) then
          echo "${prompt}mail"
          mail
     endif


     This file contains several commands to be executed  by  UNIX
each  time  I  login.  The first is a set command which is inter-
preted directly  by  the  shell.   It  sets  the  shell  variable
ignoreeof  which  causes the shell to not log me off if I hit ^D.
Rather, I use the logout command to log off of  the  system.   By
setting  the mail variable, I ask the shell to watch for incoming
mail to me.  Every 5 minutes the shell looks for  this  file  and
tells  me if more mail has arrived there.  An alternative to this
is to put the command

     biff y

in place of this set; this will cause me to be  notified  immedi-
ately  when  mail arrives, and to be shown the first few lines of
the new message.

     Next I set the shell variable `time'  to  `15'  causing  the
shell  to  automatically  print out statistics lines for commands
which execute for at least 15 seconds of CPU time.  The  variable
`history' is set to 10 indicating that I want the shell to remem-
ber the last 10 commands I type in its history  list,  (described
later).









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     I  create  an  alias ``ts'' which executes a tset(1) command
setting up the modes of the terminal.   The  parameters  to  tset
indicate  the kinds of terminal which I usually use when not on a
hardwired port.  I then execute ``ts'' and also use the stty com-
mand  to  change  the interrupt character to ^C and the line kill
character to ^U.

     I then run the `msgs' program, which provides  me  with  any
system  messages  which  I  have not seen before; the `-f' option
here prevents it from telling me anything if  there  are  no  new
messages.   Finally,  if  my  mailbox file exists, then I run the
`mail' program to process my mail.

     When the `mail' and `msgs' programs finish, the  shell  will
finish  processing my .login file and begin reading commands from
the terminal, prompting for each with `% '.  When I log  off  (by
giving the logout command) the shell will print `logout' and exe-
cute commands from the file `.logout' if it  exists  in  my  home
directory.  After that the shell will terminate and UNIX will log
me off the system.  If the system  is  not  going  down,  I  will
receive  a  new  login  message.  In any case, after the `logout'
message the shell is committed to terminating and  will  take  no
further input from my terminal.

2.2.  Shell variables

     The  shell  maintains  a set of variables.  We saw above the
variables history and time which had values `10'  and  `15'.   In
fact,  each  shell variable has as value an array of zero or more
strings.  Shell variables may be assigned values by the set  com-
mand.   It  has several forms, the most useful of which was given
above and is

     set name=value


     Shell variables may be used to store values which are to  be
used  in  commands  later  through a substitution mechanism.  The
shell variables most  commonly  referenced  are,  however,  those
which  the  shell  itself  refers  to.  By changing the values of
these variables one can  directly  affect  the  behavior  of  the
shell.

     One  of  the  most important variables is the variable path.
This variable contains a sequence of directory  names  where  the
shell  searches  for commands.  The set command with no arguments
shows the value of all variables currently  defined  (we  usually
say  set) in the shell.  The default value for path will be shown
by set to be














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     % set
     argv   ()
     cwd    /usr/bill
     home   /usr/bill
     path   (. /usr/ucb /bin /usr/bin)
     prompt %
     shell  /bin/csh
     status 0
     term   c100rv4pna
     user   bill
     %

This output indicates that the variable path points to  the  cur-
rent  directory  `.'  and then `/usr/ucb', `/bin' and `/usr/bin'.
Commands which you may write might be in `.' (usually one of your
directories).  Commands developed at Berkeley, live in `/usr/ucb'
while commands developed at Bell Laboratories live in `/bin'  and
`/usr/bin'.

     A number of locally developed programs on the system live in
the directory `/usr/local'.  If we wish that all shells which  we
invoke to have access to these new programs we can place the com-
mand

     set path=(. /usr/ucb /bin /usr/bin /usr/local)

in our file .cshrc in our home directory.   Try  doing  this  and
then logging out and back in and do

     set

again to see that the value assigned to path has changed.

     One  thing you should be aware of is that the shell examines
each directory which you insert into  your  path  and  determines
which  commands  are  contained  there.   Except  for the current
directory `.', which the shell treats specially, this means  that
if  commands  are  added to a directory in your search path after
you have started the shell, they will not necessarily be found by
the  shell.  If you wish to use a command which has been added in
this way, you should give the command

     rehash

to the shell, which will cause it to recompute its internal table
of  command  locations, so that it will find the newly added com-
mand.  Since the shell has to look in the current  directory  `.'
on  each command, placing it at the end of the path specification
usually works equivalently and reduces overhead.

-----------
  [+] Another  directory  that  might  interest you is
/usr/new, which contains many useful  user-contributed
programs provided with Berkeley Unix.









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     Other useful built in variables are the variable home  which
shows  your home directory, cwd which contains your current work-
ing directory, the variable ignoreeof which can be  set  in  your
.login  file  to  tell  the shell not to exit when it receives an
end-of-file from a terminal (as described above).   The  variable
`ignoreeof'  is one of several variables which the shell does not
care about the value of, only whether  they  are  set  or  unset.
Thus to set this variable you simply do

     set ignoreeof

and to unset it do

     unset ignoreeof

These give the variable `ignoreeof' no value, but none is desired
or required.

     Finally, some other built-in shell variables of use are  the
variables noclobber and mail.  The metasyntax

     > filename

which  redirects  the standard output of a command will overwrite
and destroy the previous contents of the named file.  In this way
you  may accidentally overwrite a file which is valuable.  If you
would prefer that the shell not overwrite files in this  way  you
can

     set noclobber

in your .login file.  Then trying to do

     date > now

would  cause  a  diagnostic  if `now' existed already.  You could
type

     date >!  now

if you really wanted to overwrite the  contents  of  `now'.   The
`>!'  is a special metasyntax indicating that clobbering the file
is ok.[+]

2.3.  The shell's history list

     The  shell  can maintain a history list into which it places
the words of previous commands.  It is possible to use a notation
to reuse commands or words from commands in forming new commands.
-----------
[+]The space between the `!' and  the  word  `now'  is
critical here, as `!now' would be an invocation of the
history  mechanism,  and  have  a  totally   different
effect.









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This mechanism can be used to repeat previous commands or to cor-
rect minor typing mistakes in commands.

     The  following figure gives a sample session involving typi-
cal usage of the history mechanism of the shell.  In this example
we have a very simple C program which has a bug (or two) in it in
the file `bug.c', which we `cat' out on our  terminal.   We  then
try  to  run the C compiler on it, referring to the file again as
`!$', meaning the last argument to the  previous  command.   Here
the  `!'  is  the history mechanism invocation metacharacter, and
the `$' stands for the last argument, by analogy to  `$'  in  the
editor  which  stands  for the end of the line.  The shell echoed
the command, as it would have been typed without use of the  his-
tory  mechanism,  and  then executed it.  The compilation yielded
error diagnostics so we now run the editor on the  file  we  were
trying  to  compile,  fix  the bug, and run the C compiler again,
this time referring to this command simply as `!c', which repeats
the  last  command  which  started with the letter `c'.  If there
were other commands starting with `c' done recently we could have
said `!cc' or even `!cc:p' which would have printed the last com-
mand starting with `cc' without executing it.

     After this recompilation, we ran the resulting `a.out' file,
and then noting that there still was a bug, ran the editor again.
After fixing the program we ran the C compiler again, but  tacked
onto  the command an extra `-o bug' telling the compiler to place
the resultant binary in the file `bug' rather than  `a.out'.   In
general,  the history mechanisms may be used anywhere in the for-
mation of new commands and other characters may be placed  before
and after the substituted commands.

     We  then  ran the `size' command to see how large the binary
program images we have created were, and then an `ls -l'  command
with  the  same  argument  list,  denoting the argument list `*'.
Finally we ran the program `bug' to see that its output is indeed
correct.

     To  make  a numbered listing of the program we ran the `num'
command on the file `bug.c'.  In  order  to  compress  out  blank
lines in the output of `num' we ran the output through the filter
`ssp', but misspelled it as spp.  To correct this we used a shell
substitute, placing the old text and new text between `^' charac-
ters.  This is similar to the substitute command in  the  editor.
Finally,  we  repeated  the  same command with `!!', but sent its
output to the line printer.

     There are other mechanisms available for repeating commands.
The history command prints out a number of previous commands with
numbers by which they can be referenced.  There is a way to refer
to a previous command by searching for a string which appeared in
it, and there are other, less useful, ways to select arguments to
include  in  a  new command.  A complete description of all these
mechanisms is given in the C shell manual pages in the UNIX  Pro-
grammer's Manual.









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     % cat bug.c
     main()

     {
          printf("hello);
     }
     % cc !$
     cc bug.c
     "bug.c", line 4: newline in string or char constant
     "bug.c", line 5: syntax error
     % ed !$
     ed bug.c
     29
     4s/);/"&/p
             printf("hello");
     w
     30
     q
     % !c
     cc bug.c
     % a.out
     hello% !e
     ed bug.c
     30
     4s/lo/lo\\n/p
             printf("hello\n");
     w
     32
     q
     % !c -o bug
     cc bug.c -o bug
     % size a.out bug
     a.out: 2784+364+1028 = 4176b = 0x1050b
     bug: 2784+364+1028 = 4176b = 0x1050b
     % ls -l !*
     ls -l a.out bug
     -rwxr-xr-x 1 bill       3932 Dec 19 09:41 a.out
     -rwxr-xr-x 1 bill       3932 Dec 19 09:42 bug
     % bug
     hello
     % num bug.c | spp
     spp: Command not found.
     % ^spp^ssp
     num bug.c | ssp
         1     main()
         3     {
         4          printf("hello\n");
         5     }
     % !! | lpr
     num bug.c | ssp | lpr
     %











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2.4.  Aliases

     The  shell  has an alias mechanism which can be used to make
transformations on input commands.  This mechanism can be used to
simplify  the  commands  you type, to supply default arguments to
commands, or to perform transformations  on  commands  and  their
arguments.   The  alias  facility is similar to a macro facility.
Some of the features obtained by aliasing can  be  obtained  also
using  shell  command  files,  but  these  take  place in another
instance of the shell and  cannot  directly  affect  the  current
shells  environment  or involve commands such as cd which must be
done in the current shell.

     As an example, suppose that there is a new  version  of  the
mail  program  on  the  system  called `newmail' you wish to use,
rather than the standard mail program which is called `mail'.  If
you place the shell command

     alias mail newmail

in  your  .cshrc  file, the shell will transform an input line of
the form

     mail bill

into a call on `newmail'.  More generally, suppose  we  wish  the
command  `ls' to always show sizes of files, that is to always do
`-s'.  We can do

     alias ls ls -s

or even

     alias dir ls -s

creating a new command syntax `dir' which does an `ls -s'.  If we
say

     dir ~bill

then the shell will translate this to

     ls -s /mnt/bill


     Thus  the alias mechanism can be used to provide short names
for commands, to provide default arguments,  and  to  define  new
short  commands  in terms of other commands.  It is also possible
to define aliases which contain multiple commands  or  pipelines,
showing  where  the  arguments  to the original command are to be
substituted using the facilities of the history mechanism.   Thus
the definition











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     alias cd 'cd \!* ; ls '

would  do  an  ls command after each change directory cd command.
We enclosed the entire alias definition in `'' characters to pre-
vent most substitutions from occurring and the character `;' from
being recognized as a metacharacter.  The  `!'  here  is  escaped
with  a  `\'  to prevent it from being interpreted when the alias
command is typed in.  The `\!*' here substitutes the entire argu-
ment list to the pre-aliasing cd command, without giving an error
if there were no arguments.  The `;' separating commands is  used
here  to  indicate  that  one  command is to be done and then the
next.  Similarly the definition

     alias whois 'grep \!^ /etc/passwd'

defines a command which looks up its first argument in the  pass-
word file.

     Warning: The shell currently reads the .cshrc file each time
it starts up.  If you place a large  number  of  commands  there,
shells  will  tend  to  start slowly.  A mechanism for saving the
shell environment after  reading  the  .cshrc  file  and  quickly
restoring  it is under development, but for now you should try to
limit the number of aliases you have to a reasonable number... 10
or  15  is  reasonable, 50 or 60 will cause a noticeable delay in
starting up shells, and make the system seem  sluggish  when  you
execute commands from within the editor and other programs.

2.5.  More redirection; >> and >&

     There  are  a few more notations useful to the terminal user
which have not been introduced yet.

     In addition to the standard output,  commands  also  have  a
diagnostic output which is normally directed to the terminal even
when the standard output is redirected to a file or a  pipe.   It
is  occasionally  desirable to direct the diagnostic output along
with the standard output.  For instance if you want  to  redirect
the output of a long running command into a file and wish to have
a record of any error diagnostic it produces you can do

     command >& file

The `>&' here tells the shell to route both the diagnostic output
and  the standard output into `file'.  Similarly you can give the
command

     command |& lpr

to route both standard and diagnostic output through the pipe  to
the line printer daemon lpr.[++]
-----------
[++] A command of the form
     command >&! file









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     Finally, it is possible to use the form

     command >> file

to place output at the end of an existing file.[+]

2.6.  Jobs; Background, Foreground, or Suspended

     When  one  or more commands are typed together as a pipeline
or as a sequence of commands separated by  semicolons,  a  single
job is created by the shell consisting of these commands together
as a unit.  Single commands without pipes  or  semicolons  create
the  simplest  jobs.  Usually, every line typed to the shell cre-
ates a job.  Some lines that create jobs (one per line) are

     sort < data
     ls -s | sort -n | head -5
     mail harold


     If the metacharacter `&' is typed at the  end  of  the  com-
mands,  then  the job is started as a background job.  This means
that the shell does not wait for it to complete  but  immediately
prompts  and  is  ready for another command.  The job runs in the
background at the same time that normal jobs,  called  foreground
jobs,  continue  to  be  read  and executed by the shell one at a
time.  Thus

     du > usage &

would run the du program, which reports on the disk usage of your
working  directory (as well as any directories below it), put the
output into the file `usage' and return immediately with a prompt
for  the  next command without out waiting for du to finish.  The
du program would continue executing in the  background  until  it
finished,  even  though you can type and execute more commands in
the mean time.  When a background job terminates,  a  message  is
typed  by  the shell just before the next prompt telling you that
the job has completed.  In the following example the du job  fin-
ishes  sometime  during the execution of the mail command and its
completion is reported just before the prompt after the mail  job
is finished.



-----------
exists,  and  is  used  when noclobber is set and file
already exists.
[+] If noclobber is set, then an error will result  if
file  does  not exist, otherwise the shell will create
file if it doesn't exist.  A form
     command >>! file
makes it not be an error for file to  not  exist  when
noclobber is set.









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     % du > usage &
     [1] 503
     % mail bill
     How do you know when a background job is finished?
     EOT
     [1] - Done       du > usage
     %

If  the  job  did not terminate normally the `Done' message might
say something else like `Killed'.  If you want  the  terminations
of  background jobs to be reported at the time they occur (possi-
bly interrupting the output of other foreground  jobs),  you  can
set the notify variable.  In the previous example this would mean
that the `Done' message might have come right in  the  middle  of
the  message to Bill.  Background jobs are unaffected by any sig-
nals from the keyboard like the STOP, INTERRUPT, or QUIT  signals
mentioned earlier.

     Jobs  are  recorded  in  a table inside the shell until they
terminate.  In this table, the shell remembers the command names,
arguments  and  the process numbers of all commands in the job as
well as the working directory where the job  was  started.   Each
job  in  the  table  is either running in the foreground with the
shell waiting for it to terminate, running in the background,  or
suspended.   Only one job can be running in the foreground at one
time, but several jobs can be suspended or running in  the  back-
ground  at  once.  As each job is started, it is assigned a small
identifying number called the job number which can be used  later
to refer to the job in the commands described below.  Job numbers
remain the same until the job terminates and then are re-used.

     When a job is started in the background using `&', its  num-
ber,  as  well as the process numbers of all its (top level) com-
mands, is typed by the shell before  prompting  you  for  another
command. For example,

     % ls -s | sort -n > usage &
     [2] 2034 2035
     %

runs  the  `ls'  program with the `-s' options, pipes this output
into the `sort' program with the `-n' option which puts its  out-
put  into  the file `usage'.  Since the `&' was at the end of the
line, these two programs were started together  as  a  background
job.   After starting the job, the shell prints the job number in
brackets (2 in this case) followed by the process number of  each
program  started  in  the job.  Then the shell immediates prompts
for a new command, leaving the job running simultaneously.

     As mentioned in section 1.8,  foreground  jobs  become  sus-
pended  by  typing  ^Z which sends a STOP signal to the currently
running foreground job.  A background job can become suspended by
using  the stop command described below.  When jobs are suspended
they merely stop any further progress until started again, either









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in  the  foreground  or the background.  The shell notices when a
job becomes stopped and reports this fact, much like  it  reports
the  termination  of  background  jobs.  For foreground jobs this
looks like

     % du > usage
     ^Z
     Stopped
     %

`Stopped' message is typed by the shell when it notices that  the
du program stopped.  For background jobs, using the stop command,
it is

     % sort usage &
     [1] 2345
     % stop %1
     [1] + Stopped (signal)sort usage
     %

Suspending foreground jobs can be very useful when  you  need  to
temporarily  change  what  you are doing (execute other commands)
and then return to the suspended job.  Also, foreground jobs  can
be  suspended  and then continued as background jobs using the bg
command, allowing you to continue other work and stop waiting for
the foreground job to finish.  Thus

     % du > usage
     ^Z
     Stopped
     % bg
     [1] du > usage &
     %

starts  `du' in the foreground, stops it before it finishes, then
continues it in the background allowing more foreground  commands
to be executed.  This is especially helpful when a foreground job
ends up taking longer than you expected  and  you  wish  you  had
started it in the background in the beginning.

     All  job  control commands can take an argument that identi-
fies a particular job.  All job name  arguments  begin  with  the
character `%', since some of the job control commands also accept
process numbers (printed by the ps  command.)   The  default  job
(when  no  argument  is  given)  is called the current job and is
identified by a `+' in the output  of  the  jobs  command,  which
shows  you  which jobs you have.  When only one job is stopped or
running in the background (the usual case) it is always the  cur-
rent  job  thus no argument is needed.  If a job is stopped while
running in the foreground it becomes  the  current  job  and  the
existing  current  job becomes the previous job - identified by a
`-' in the output of jobs.  When the current job terminates,  the
previous  job  becomes the current job.  When given, the argument
is either `%-' (indicating the previous job); `%#',  where  #  is









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the  job  number; `%pref' where pref is some unique prefix of the
command name and arguments of one of the jobs; or  `%?'  followed
by some string found in only one of the jobs.

     The  jobs  command  types  the table of jobs, giving the job
number, commands and status  (`Stopped'  or  `Running')  of  each
background  or  suspended  job.  With the `-l' option the process
numbers are also typed.

     % du > usage &
     [1] 3398
     % ls -s | sort -n > myfile &
     [2] 3405
     % mail bill
     ^Z
     Stopped
     % jobs
     [1] - Running    du > usage
     [2]    Running   ls -s | sort -n > myfile
     [3] + Stopped    mail bill
     % fg %ls
     ls -s | sort -n > myfile
     % more myfile


     The fg command runs a suspended or  background  job  in  the
foreground.   It is used to restart a previously suspended job or
change a background job to run in the foreground  (allowing  sig-
nals  or  input from the terminal).  In the above example we used
fg to change the `ls' job from the background to  the  foreground
since  we  wanted  to wait for it to finish before looking at its
output file.  The bg command runs a suspended job  in  the  back-
ground.   It is usually used after stopping the currently running
foreground job with the STOP signal.  The combination of the STOP
signal  and  the bg command changes a foreground job into a back-
ground job.  The stop command suspends a background job.

     The kill command terminates a background  or  suspended  job
immediately.   In  addition to jobs, it may be given process num-
bers as arguments, as printed by ps.  Thus, in the example above,
the running du command could have been terminated by the command

     % kill %1
     [1]  Terminated  du > usage
     %


     The  notify  command  (not  the  variable mentioned earlier)
indicates that the  termination  of  a  specific  job  should  be
reported  at the time it finishes instead of waiting for the next
prompt.

     If a job running in the background tries to read input  from
the  terminal  it  is  automatically stopped.  When such a job is









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then run in the foreground, input can be given to  the  job.   If
desired,  the  job  can  be  run in the background again until it
requests input again.   This  is  illustrated  in  the  following
sequence  where  the  `s' command in the text editor might take a
long time.

     % ed bigfile
     120000
     1,$s/thisword/thatword/
     ^Z
     Stopped
     % bg
     [1] ed bigfile &
     %
      . . .  some foreground commands
     [1] Stopped (tty input)ed bigfile
     % fg
     ed bigfile
     w
     120000
     q
     %

So after the `s' command was issued, the  `ed'  job  was  stopped
with ^Z and then put in the background using bg.  Some time later
when the `s' command was finished, ed tried to read another  com-
mand  and  was stopped because jobs in the background cannot read
from the terminal.  The fg command returned the `ed' job  to  the
foreground  where  it  could  once again accept commands from the
terminal.

     The command

     stty tostop

causes all background jobs run on your terminal to stop when they
are  about  to  write output to the terminal.  This prevents mes-
sages from background jobs from interrupting foreground job  out-
put  and allows you to run a job in the background without losing
terminal output.  It also can be used  for  interactive  programs
that  sometimes have long periods without interaction.  Thus each
time it outputs a prompt for more input it will stop  before  the
prompt.   It  can  then  be  run in the foreground using fg, more
input can be given and, if necessary stopped and returned to  the
background.   This  stty  command might be a good thing to put in
your .login file if you do not like output from  background  jobs
interrupting  your  work.   It also can reduce the need for redi-
recting the output of background jobs if the output is  not  very
big:














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     % stty tostop
     % wc hugefile &
     [1] 10387
     % ed text
     . . . some time later
     q
     [1] Stopped (tty output)wc hugefile
     % fg wc
     wc hugefile
        13371   30123   302577
     % stty -tostop

Thus  after  some  time the `wc' command, which counts the lines,
words and characters in a file, had one line of output.  When  it
tried to write this to the terminal it stopped.  By restarting it
in the foreground we allowed it to write on the terminal  exactly
when we were ready to look at its output.  Programs which attempt
to change the mode of the terminal will also  block,  whether  or
not  tostop  is  set,  when they are not in the foreground, as it
would be very unpleasant to have  a  background  job  change  the
state of the terminal.

     Since  the jobs command only prints jobs started in the cur-
rently executing shell, it knows nothing  about  background  jobs
started  in  other  login sessions or within shell files.  The ps
can be used in this case to find out about  background  jobs  not
started in the current shell.

2.7.  Working Directories

     As  mentioned  in section 1.6, the shell is always in a par-
ticular working directory.  The `change directory' command  chdir
(its  short  form cd may also be used) changes the working direc-
tory of the shell, that is, changes the directory you are located
in.

     It  is  useful to make a directory for each project you wish
to work on and to place all files related to that project in that
directory.   The  `make  directory' command, mkdir, creates a new
directory.  The pwd (`print working directory')  command  reports
the absolute pathname of the working directory of the shell, that
is, the directory you are located in.  Thus in the example below:

     % pwd
     /usr/bill
     % mkdir newpaper
     % chdir newpaper
     % pwd
     /usr/bill/newpaper
     %

the user has created and moved to the directory newpaper.  where,
for example, he might place a group of related files.










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     No matter where you have moved to in a directory  hierarchy,
you can return to your `home' login directory by doing just

     cd

with  no  arguments.   The  name  `..' always means the directory
above the current one in the hierarchy, thus

     cd ..

changes the shell's working directory to the one  directly  above
the  current  one.   The  name  `..' can be used in any pathname,
thus,

     cd ../programs

means change to the directory `programs' contained in the  direc-
tory  above the current one.  If you have several directories for
different projects under, say, your home directory,  this  short-
hand notation permits you to switch easily between them.

     The shell always remembers the pathname of its current work-
ing directory in  the  variable  cwd.   The  shell  can  also  be
requested to remember the previous directory when you change to a
new working directory.  If the `push directory' command pushd  is
used  in place of the cd command, the shell saves the name of the
current working directory on a directory stack before changing to
the  new  one.   You  can see this list at any time by typing the
`directories' command dirs.

     % pushd newpaper/references
     ~/newpaper/references  ~
     % pushd /usr/lib/tmac
     /usr/lib/tmac  ~/newpaper/references  ~
     % dirs
     /usr/lib/tmac  ~/newpaper/references  ~
     % popd
     ~/newpaper/references  ~
     % popd
     ~
     %

The list is printed in a horizontal line, reading left to  right,
with  a  tilde  (~) as shorthand for your home directory--in this
case `/usr/bill'.  The directory stack is printed whenever  there
is  more than one entry on it and it changes.  It is also printed
by a dirs command.  Dirs is usually faster and  more  informative
than  pwd since it shows the current working directory as well as
any other directories remembered in the stack.

     The pushd command with no argument  alternates  the  current
directory  with the first directory in the list.  The `pop direc-
tory' popd command without an argument returns you to the  direc-
tory  you  were  in  prior  to  the  current  one, discarding the









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previous current directory from the stack (forgetting it).   Typ-
ing popd several times in a series takes you backward through the
directories you had been in (changed to) by pushd command.  There
are other options to pushd and popd to manipulate the contents of
the directory stack and to change to directories not at  the  top
of the stack; see the csh manual page for details.

     Since  the  shell  remembers  the working directory in which
each job was started, it warns you when you might be confused  by
restarting  a job in the foreground which has a different working
directory than the current working directory of the shell.   Thus
if  you  start  a background job, then change the shell's working
directory and then cause the background job to run in  the  fore-
ground,  the  shell  warns  you that the working directory of the
currently running foreground job is different from  that  of  the
shell.

     % dirs -l
     /mnt/bill
     % cd myproject
     % dirs
     ~/myproject
     % ed prog.c
     1143
     ^Z
     Stopped
     % cd ..
     % ls
     myproject
     textfile
     % fg
     ed prog.c (wd: ~/myproject)

This  way  the shell warns you when there is an implied change of
working directory, even though no cd command was issued.  In  the
above  example the `ed' job was still in `/mnt/bill/project' even
though the shell had changed to `/mnt/bill'.  A  similar  warning
is  given  when  such a foreground job terminates or is suspended
(using the STOP signal) since  the  return  to  the  shell  again
implies a change of working directory.

     % fg
     ed prog.c (wd: ~/myproject)
      . . . after some editing
     q
     (wd now: ~)
     %

These  messages  are sometimes confusing if you use programs that
change their own working directories, since the shell only remem-
bers  which  directory  a job is started in, and assumes it stays
there.  The `-l' option of jobs will type the  working  directory
of  suspended  or  background  jobs when it is different from the
current working directory of the shell.









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2.8.  Useful built-in commands

     We now give a few of the useful  built-in  commands  of  the
shell describing how they are used.

     The  alias  command  described  above  is used to assign new
aliases and to show the existing aliases.  With no  arguments  it
prints  the current aliases.  It may also be given only one argu-
ment such as

     alias ls

to show the current alias for, e.g., `ls'.

     The echo command prints its arguments.  It is often used  in
shell  scripts  or as an interactive command to see what filename
expansions will produce.

     The history command will show the contents  of  the  history
list.   The  numbers given with the history events can be used to
reference previous events which are difficult to reference  using
the  contextual  mechanisms  introduced  above.   There is also a
shell variable called prompt.  By placing a `!' character in  its
value  the  shell will there substitute the number of the current
command in the history list.  You can use this number to refer to
this command in a history substitution.  Thus you could

     set prompt='\! % '

Note  that  the  `!' character had to be escaped here even within
`'' characters.

     The limit command is used  to  restrict  use  of  resources.
With no arguments it prints the current limitations:

     cputime   unlimited
     filesize  unlimited
     datasize  5616 kbytes
     stacksize 512 kbytes
     coredumpsizeunlimited

Limits can be set, e.g.:

     limit coredumpsize 128k

Most reasonable units abbreviations will work; see the csh manual
page for more details.

     The logout command can be used to terminate  a  login  shell
which has ignoreeof set.

     The  rehash command causes the shell to recompute a table of
where commands are located.  This is necessary if you add a  com-
mand  to  a directory in the current shell's search path and wish









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the shell to find it, since otherwise the hashing  algorithm  may
tell the shell that the command wasn't in that directory when the
hash table was computed.

     The repeat command can be used to repeat a  command  several
times.   Thus  to  make 5 copies of the file one in the file five
you could do

     repeat 5 cat one >> five


     The setenv command can be used to set variables in the envi-
ronment.  Thus

     setenv TERM adm3a

will  set  the value of the environment variable TERM to `adm3a'.
A user program printenv exists which will print out the  environ-
ment.  It might then show:

     % printenv
     HOME=/usr/bill
     SHELL=/bin/csh
     PATH=:/usr/ucb:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local
     TERM=adm3a
     USER=bill
     %


     The source command can be used to force the current shell to
read commands from a file.  Thus

     source .cshrc

can be used after editing in a change to the  .cshrc  file  which
you wish to take effect right away.

     The  time command can be used to cause a command to be timed
no matter how much CPU time it takes.  Thus

     % time cp /etc/rc /usr/bill/rc
     0.0u 0.1s 0:01 8% 2+1k 3+2io 1pf+0w
     % time wc /etc/rc /usr/bill/rc
          52    178   1347 /etc/rc
          52    178   1347 /usr/bill/rc
         104    356   2694 total
     0.1u 0.1s 0:00 13% 3+3k 5+3io 7pf+0w
     %

indicates that the cp command used a negligible  amount  of  user
time  (u) and about 1/10th of a system time (s); the elapsed time
was 1 second (0:01), there was an  average  memory  usage  of  2k
bytes  of  program  space and 1k bytes of data space over the cpu
time involved (2+1k); the program did three disk  reads  and  two









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disk  writes (3+2io), and took one page fault and was not swapped
(1pf+0w).  The word count command wc on the other hand  used  0.1
seconds  of user time and 0.1 seconds of system time in less than
a second of elapsed time.  The percentage  `13%'  indicates  that
over the period when it was active the command `wc' used an aver-
age of 13 percent of the available CPU cycles of the machine.

     The unalias and unset commands can be used to remove aliases
and  variable  definitions  from  the shell, and unsetenv removes
variables from the environment.

2.9.  What else?

     This concludes the basic discussion of the shell for  termi-
nal  users.  There are more features of the shell to be discussed
here, and all features of the shell are discussed in  its  manual
pages.   One useful feature which is discussed later is the fore-
ach built-in command which can be used to run  the  same  command
sequence with a number of different arguments.

     If  you intend to use UNIX a lot you you should look through
the rest of this document and the csh manual pages (section1)  to
become  familiar with the other facilities which are available to
you.







































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3.  Shell control structures and command scripts

3.1.  Introduction

     It is possible to place  commands  in  files  and  to  cause
shells  to  be  invoked  to  read and execute commands from these
files, which are called shell scripts.  We here detail those fea-
tures of the shell useful to the writers of such scripts.

3.2.  Make

     It  is  important  to  first note what shell scripts are not
useful for.  There is a program called make which is very  useful
for  maintaining  a  group of related files or performing sets of
operations on related files.  For instance a large  program  con-
sisting  of one or more files can have its dependencies described
in a makefile which contains definitions of the commands used  to
create  these different files when changes occur.  Definitions of
the means for printing listings, cleaning  up  the  directory  in
which the files reside, and installing the resultant programs are
easily, and most appropriately placed  in  this  makefile.   This
format is superior and preferable to maintaining a group of shell
procedures to maintain these files.

     Similarly when working on a document a makefile may be  cre-
ated  which defines how different versions of the document are to
be created and which options of nroff or troff are appropriate.

3.3.  Invocation and the argv variable

     A csh command script may be interpreted by saying

     % csh script ...

where script is the name of the file containing a  group  of  csh
commands  and  `...' is replaced by a sequence of arguments.  The
shell places these arguments in the variable argv and then begins
to  read  commands  from  the  script.  These parameters are then
available through the same mechanisms which are used to reference
any other shell variables.

     If you make the file `script' executable by doing

     chmod 755 script

and  place  a  shell comment at the beginning of the shell script
(i.e. begin the file with a `#' character) then a `/bin/csh' will
automatically be invoked to execute `script' when you type

     script

If  the  file  does  not begin with a `#' then the standard shell
`/bin/sh' will be used to execute it.  This allows you to convert
your older shell scripts to use csh at your convenience.









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3.4.  Variable substitution

     After  each input line is broken into words and history sub-
stitutions are done on it, the input line is parsed into distinct
commands.   Before  each  command is executed a mechanism know as
variable substitution is done on these words.  Keyed by the char-
acter  `$'  this  substitution replaces the names of variables by
their values.  Thus

     echo $argv

when placed in a command script would cause the current value  of
the variable argv to be echoed to the output of the shell script.
It is an error for argv to be unset at this point.

     A number of notations are provided for accessing  components
and attributes of variables.  The notation

     $?name

expands  to  `1' if name is set or to `0' if name is not set.  It
is the fundamental mechanism used for checking whether particular
variables  have  been assigned values.  All other forms of refer-
ence to undefined variables cause errors.

     The notation

     $#name

expands to the number of elements in the variable name.  Thus

     % set argv=(a b c)
     % echo $?argv
     1
     % echo $#argv
     3
     % unset argv
     % echo $?argv
     0
     % echo $argv
     Undefined variable: argv.
     %


     It is also possible to access the components of  a  variable
which has several values.  Thus

     $argv[1]

gives  the  first  component of argv or in the example above `a'.
Similarly

     $argv[$#argv]










USD:4-36                           An Introduction to the C shell


would give `c', and

     $argv[1-2]

would give `a b'. Other notations useful in shell scripts are

     $n

where n is an integer as a shorthand for

     $argv[n]

the nth parameter and

     $*

which is a shorthand for

     $argv

The form

     $$

expands to the process number of the current shell.   Since  this
process  number is unique in the system it can be used in genera-
tion of unique temporary file names.  The form

     $<

is quite special and is replaced by the next line of  input  read
from  the  shell's standard input (not the script it is reading).
This is useful for writing shell scripts  that  are  interactive,
reading  commands  from  the  terminal,  or  even writing a shell
script that acts as a filter, reading lines from its input  file.
Thus the sequence

     echo 'yes or no?\c'
     set a=($<)

would  write  out  the  prompt `yes or no?' without a newline and
then read the answer into the variable `a'.  In this  case  `$#a'
would  be  `0'  if  either  a  blank line or end-of-file (^D) was
typed.

     One minor difference between `$n' and `$argv[n]'  should  be
noted  here.  The form `$argv[n]' will yield an error if n is not
in the range `1-$#argv' while `$n' will never  yield  an  out  of
range  subscript  error.   This is for compatibility with the way
older shells handled parameters.

     Another important point is that it is never an error to give
a  subrange of the form `n-'; if there are less than n components
of the given variable then no words are substituted.  A range  of









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the form `m-n' likewise returns an empty vector without giving an
error when m exceeds the number of elements of  the  given  vari-
able, provided the subscript n is in range.

3.5.  Expressions

     In  order for interesting shell scripts to be constructed it
must be possible to evaluate expressions in the  shell  based  on
the  values of variables.  In fact, all the arithmetic operations
of the language C are available in the shell with the same prece-
dence  that  they  have in C.  In particular, the operations `=='
and `!=' compare strings and the operators `&&' and  `||'  imple-
ment  the  boolean and/or operations.  The special operators `=~'
and `!~' are similar to `==' and `!=' except that the  string  on
the right side can have pattern matching characters (like *, ? or
[]) and the test is whether the string on the  left  matches  the
pattern on the right.

     The shell also allows file enquiries of the form

     -? filename

where  `?'  is  replace  by  a  number of single characters.  For
instance the expression primitive

     -e filename

tell whether the file `filename' exists.  Other  primitives  test
for  read,  write and execute access to the file, whether it is a
directory, or has non-zero length.

     It is possible to test whether  a  command  terminates  nor-
mally,  by  a  primitive  of the form `{ command }' which returns
true, i.e. `1' if the command succeeds exiting normally with exit
status  0,  or  `0'  if the command terminates abnormally or with
exit status non-zero.  If more  detailed  information  about  the
execution status of a command is required, it can be executed and
the variable `$status'  examined  in  the  next  command.   Since
`$status'  is set by every command, it is very transient.  It can
be saved if it is inconvenient to use it only in the single imme-
diately following command.

     For  a  full list of expression components available see the
manual section for the shell.

3.6.  Sample shell script

     A sample shell script which  makes  use  of  the  expression
mechanism of the shell and some of its control structure follows:














USD:4-38                           An Introduction to the C shell


     % cat copyc
     #
     # Copyc copies those C programs in the specified list
     # to the directory ~/backup if they differ from the files
     # already in ~/backup
     #
     set noglob
     foreach i ($argv)

             if ($i !~ *.c) continue  # not a .c file so do nothing

             if (! -r ~/backup/$i:t) then
                     echo $i:t not in backup... not cp\'ed
                     continue
             endif

             cmp -s $i ~/backup/$i:t # to set $status

             if ($status != 0) then
                     echo new backup of $i
                     cp $i ~/backup/$i:t
             endif
     end


     This script makes use of the foreach command,  which  causes
the  shell  to  execute  the commands between the foreach and the
matching end for each of the values given  between  `('  and  `)'
with  the named variable, in this case `i' set to successive val-
ues in the list.  Within this loop we may use the  command  break
to  stop executing the loop and continue to prematurely terminate
one iteration and begin the next.  After  the  foreach  loop  the
iteration  variable  (i  in  this case) has the value at the last
iteration.

     We set the variable noglob here to prevent  filename  expan-
sion of the members of argv.  This is a good idea, in general, if
the arguments to a shell script are filenames which have  already
been  expanded or if the arguments may contain filename expansion
metacharacters.  It is also possible to quote each use of  a  `$'
variable expansion, but this is harder and less reliable.

     The  other control construct used here is a statement of the
form

     if ( expression ) then
          command
          ...
     endif

The placement of the keywords here is not  flexible  due  to  the
current implementation of the shell.[+]
-----------
[+]The following two formats are not currently accept-









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     The shell does have another form of the if statement of  the
form

     if ( expression ) command

which can be written

     if ( expression ) \
          command

Here we have escaped the newline for the sake of appearance.  The
command must not involve `|', `&' or `;' and must not be  another
control command.  The second form requires the final `\' to imme-
diately precede the end-of-line.

     The more general if statements above also admit  a  sequence
of else-if pairs followed by a single else and an endif, e.g.:

     if ( expression ) then
          commands
     else if (expression ) then
          commands
     ...

     else
          commands
     endif


     Another important mechanism used in shell scripts is the `:'
modifier.  We can use the modifier `:r' here to extract a root of
a  filename  or `:e' to extract the extension.  Thus if the vari-
able i has the value `/mnt/foo.bar' then

     % echo $i $i:r $i:e
     /mnt/foo.bar /mnt/foo bar
     %

shows how the `:r' modifier strips off the  trailing  `.bar'  and
the  the  `:e'  modifier  leaves only the `bar'.  Other modifiers
will take off the last component of a pathname leaving  the  head
`:h' or all but the last component of a pathname leaving the tail
-----------
able to the shell:

     if ( expression )        # Won't work!
     then
          command
          ...
     endif

and

     if ( expression ) then command endif         # Won't work









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`:t'.  These modifiers are fully  described  in  the  csh  manual
pages in the User's Reference Manual.  It is also possible to use
the command substitution mechanism described in  the  next  major
section  to  perform modifications on strings to then reenter the
shell's environment.  Since each usage of this mechanism involves
the  creation  of a new process, it is much more expensive to use
than the `:' modification mechanism.[++] Finally,  we  note  that
the  character  `#' lexically introduces a shell comment in shell
scripts (but not from the terminal).  All  subsequent  characters
on  the  input line after a `#' are discarded by the shell.  This
character can be quoted using `'' or `\' to place it in an  argu-
ment word.

3.7.  Other control structures

     The shell also has control structures while and switch simi-
lar to those of C.  These take the forms

     while ( expression )
          commands
     end

and

     switch ( word )

     case str1:
          commands
          breaksw

      ...

     case strn:
          commands
          breaksw

     default:
          commands
          breaksw

     endsw

For details see the manual section for csh.  C programmers should
note  that we use breaksw to exit from a switch while break exits
-----------
[++] It is also important to  note  that  the  current
implementation  of  the shell limits the number of `:'
modifiers on a `$' substitution to 1.  Thus

     % echo $i $i:h:t
     /a/b/c /a/b:t
     %

does not do what one would expect.









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a while or foreach loop.  A common mistake to make in csh scripts
is to use break rather than breaksw in switches.

     Finally,  csh  allows  a goto statement, with labels looking
like they do in C, i.e.:

     loop:
          commands
          goto loop


3.8.  Supplying input to commands

     Commands run from shell scripts receive by default the stan-
dard  input  of  the  shell which is running the script.  This is
different from previous shells running  under  UNIX.   It  allows
shell  scripts  to  fully  participate in pipelines, but mandates
extra notation for commands which are to take inline data.

     Thus we need a metanotation for  supplying  inline  data  to
commands  in  shell scripts.  As an example, consider this script
which runs the editor to delete leading blanks from the lines  in
each argument file:

     % cat deblank
     # deblank -- remove leading blanks
     foreach i ($argv)
     ed - $i << 'EOF'
     1,$s/^[ ]*//
     w
     q
     'EOF'
     end
     %

The  notation `<< 'EOF'' means that the standard input for the ed
command is to come from the text in the shell script file  up  to
the  next  line consisting of exactly `'EOF''.  The fact that the
`EOF' is enclosed in `''  characters,  i.e.  quoted,  causes  the
shell  to  not  perform  variable substitution on the intervening
lines.  In general, if any part of the word  following  the  `<<'
which  the  shell  uses  to terminate the text to be given to the
command is quoted then these substitutions will not be performed.
In this case since we used the form `1,$' in our editor script we
needed to insure that this `$' was not variable substituted.   We
could  also  have  insured  this by preceding the `$' here with a
`\', i.e.:

     1,\$s/^[ ]*//

but quoting the `EOF'  terminator  is  a  more  reliable  way  of
achieving the same thing.











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3.9.  Catching interrupts

     If  our shell script creates temporary files, we may wish to
catch interruptions of the shell script so that we can  clean  up
these files.  We can then do

     onintr label

where  label  is  a  label  in  our  program.  If an interrupt is
received the shell will do a `goto label' and we can  remove  the
temporary files and then do an exit command (which is built in to
the shell) to exit from the shell script.  If  we  wish  to  exit
with a non-zero status we can do

     exit(1)

e.g. to exit with status `1'.

3.10.  What else?

     There  are  other features of the shell useful to writers of
shell procedures.  The verbose and echo options and  the  related
-v  and  -x  command  line  options can be used to help trace the
actions of the shell.  The -n option causes  the  shell  only  to
read  commands  and  not  to execute them and may sometimes be of
use.

     One other thing to note is that csh will not  execute  shell
scripts  which do not begin with the character `#', that is shell
scripts that  do  not  begin  with  a  comment.   Similarly,  the
`/bin/sh'  on  your  system  may well defer to `csh' to interpret
shell scripts which begin with `#'.  This  allows  shell  scripts
for both shells to live in harmony.

     There  is  also  another quotation mechanism using `"' which
allows only some of the expansion mechanisms we have so far  dis-
cussed  to  occur  on  the  quoted string and serves to make this
string into a single word as `'' does.

























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4.  Other, less commonly used, shell features

4.1.  Loops at the terminal; variables as vectors

     It is occasionally useful to use the foreach control  struc-
ture  at  the  terminal  to aid in performing a number of similar
commands.  For instance, there were at one point three shells  in
use  on the Cory UNIX system at Cory Hall, `/bin/sh', `/bin/nsh',
and `/bin/csh'.  To count the number of persons using each  shell
one could have issued the commands

     % grep -c csh$ /etc/passwd
     27
     % grep -c nsh$ /etc/passwd
     128
     % grep -c -v sh$ /etc/passwd
     430
     %

Since  these  commands  are very similar we can use foreach to do
this more easily.

     % foreach i ('sh$' 'csh$' '-v sh$')
     ? grep -c $i /etc/passwd
     ? end
     27
     128
     430
     %

Note here that the shell prompts for input with `? ' when reading
the body of the loop.

     Very  useful with loops are variables which contain lists of
filenames or other words.  You can, for example, do

     % set a=(`ls`)
     % echo $a
     csh.n csh.rm
     % ls
     csh.n
     csh.rm
     % echo $#a
     2
     %

The set command here gave the variable a a list of all the  file-
names  in  the  current  directory as value.  We can then iterate
over these names to perform any chosen function.

     The output of a command within ``' characters  is  converted
by  the  shell  to  a  list of words.  You can also place the ``'
quoted string within `"' characters to take each (non-empty) line
as  a  component of the variable; preventing the lines from being









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split into words at blanks and  tabs.   A  modifier  `:x'  exists
which  can be used later to expand each component of the variable
into another variable splitting it into separate words at  embed-
ded blanks and tabs.

4.2.  Braces { ... } in argument expansion

     Another  form  of  filename  expansion,  alluded  to  before
involves the characters `{' and `}'.   These  characters  specify
that  the  contained strings, separated by `,' are to be consecu-
tively substituted into the containing characters and the results
expanded left to right.  Thus

     A{str1,str2,...strn}B

expands to

     Astr1B Astr2B ... AstrnB

This  expansion  occurs before the other filename expansions, and
may be applied recursively (i.e. nested).  The  results  of  each
expanded  string are sorted separately, left to right order being
preserved.  The resulting filenames are not required to exist  if
no  other  expansion  mechanisms  are used.  This means that this
mechanism can be used to generate arguments which are  not  file-
names, but which have common parts.

     A typical use of this would be

     mkdir ~/{hdrs,retrofit,csh}

to  make subdirectories `hdrs', `retrofit' and `csh' in your home
directory.  This mechanism is most useful when the common  prefix
is longer than in this example, i.e.

     chown root /usr/{ucb/{ex,edit},lib/{ex?.?*,how_ex}}


4.3.  Command substitution

     A  command  enclosed  in  ``'  characters  is replaced, just
before filenames are expanded, by the output from  that  command.
Thus it is possible to do

     set pwd=`pwd`

to save the current directory in the variable pwd or to do

     ex `grep -l TRACE *.c`

to  run  the  editor  ex supplying as arguments those files whose
names end in `.c' which have the string `TRACE' in them.*
-----------
*Command expansion also  occurs  in  input  redirected









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4.4.  Other details not covered here

     In particular circumstances it may be necessary to know  the
exact  nature  and  order of different substitutions performed by
the shell.  The exact meaning of certain combinations  of  quota-
tions  is  also occasionally important.  These are detailed fully
in its manual section.

     The shell has a number of command line option  flags  mostly
of  use  in  writing  UNIX programs, and debugging shell scripts.
See the csh(1) manual section for a list of these options.








































-----------
with  `<<'  and  within  `"' quotations.  Refer to the
shell manual section for full details.









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Appendix - Special characters

The following table lists the special characters of csh  and  the
UNIX  system,  giving for each the section(s) in which it is dis-
cussed.  A number of these characters also have  special  meaning
in  expressions.  See the csh manual section for a complete list.

Syntactic metacharacters

     ;    2.4  separates commands to be executed sequentially
     |    1.5  separates commands in a pipeline
     ( )  2.2,3.6   brackets expressions and variable values
     &    2.5  follows commands to be executed without waiting for completion


Filename metacharacters

     /    1.6  separates components of a file's pathname
     .    1.6  separates root parts of a file name from extensions
     ?    1.6  expansion character matching any single character
     *    1.6  expansion character matching any sequence of characters
     [ ]  1.6  expansion sequence matching any single character from a set
     ~    1.6  used at the beginning of a filename to indicate home directories
     { }  4.2  used to specify groups of arguments with common parts


Quotation metacharacters

     \    1.7  prevents meta-meaning of following single character
     '    1.7  prevents meta-meaning of a group of characters
     "    4.3  like ', but allows variable and command expansion


Input/output metacharacters

     <    1.5  indicates redirected input
     >    1.3  indicates redirected output


Expansion/substitution metacharacters

     $    3.4  indicates variable substitution
     !    2.3  indicates history substitution
     :    3.6  precedes substitution modifiers
     ^    2.3  used in special forms of history substitution
     `    4.3  indicates command substitution


Other metacharacters

     #    1.3,3.6   begins scratch file names; indicates shell comments
     -    1.2  prefixes option (flag) arguments to commands
     %    2.6  prefixes job name specifications










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Glossary

     This glossary lists the most important terms  introduced  in
the introduction to the shell and gives references to sections of
the shell document for further information  about  them.   Refer-
ences of the form `pr (1)' indicate that the command pr is in the
UNIX User Reference manual in section 1.   You  can  look  at  an
online copy of its manual page by doing

     man 1 pr

References  of  the form (2.5) indicate that more information can
be found in section 2.5 of this manual.

.              Your current directory has the name `.' as well as
               the  name  printed  by  the  command pwd; see also
               dirs.  The current directory `.'  is  usually  the
               first  component  of  the search path contained in
               the variable path, thus commands which are in  `.'
               are  found first (2.2).  The character `.' is also
               used in separating components of filenames  (1.6).
               The  character `.' at the beginning of a component
               of a pathname is treated specially and not matched
               by the filename expansion metacharacters `?', `*',
               and `[' `]' pairs (1.6).

..             Each directory has a file `..' in it  which  is  a
               reference to its parent directory.  After changing
               into the directory with chdir, i.e.

                    chdir paper

               you can return to the parent directory by doing

                    chdir ..

               The current directory is printed by pwd (2.7).

a.out          Compilers which create  executable  images  create
               them, by default, in the file a.out.  for histori-
               cal reasons (2.3).

absolute pathname
               A pathname which begins with  a  `/'  is  absolute
               since  it  specifies  the path of directories from
               the beginning of the  entire  directory  system  -
               called  the  root  directory.  Pathnames which are
               not absolute are called relative  (see  definition
               of relative pathname) (1.6).

alias          An alias specifies a shorter or different name for
               a UNIX command, or a transformation on  a  command
               to  be  performed  in  the shell.  The shell has a
               command alias which establishes  aliases  and  can









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               print  their  current values.  The command unalias
               is used to remove aliases (2.4).

argument       Commands in UNIX receive a list of argument words.
               Thus the command

                    echo a b c

               consists  of  the  command  name  `echo' and three
               argument words `a', `b' and `c'.  The set of argu-
               ments  after  the  command  name is said to be the
               argument list of the command (1.1).

argv           The list of arguments to a command written in  the
               shell language (a shell script or shell procedure)
               is stored in a variable  called  argv  within  the
               shell.   This  name is taken from the conventional
               name in the C programming language (3.4).

background     Commands started without waiting for them to  com-
               plete are called background commands (2.6).

base           A  filename  is sometimes thought of as consisting
               of a base part, before any `.' character,  and  an
               extension  - the part after the `.'.  See filename
               and extension (1.6) and basename (1).

bg             The bg command causes a suspended job to  continue
               execution in the background (2.6).

bin            A  directory  containing  binaries of programs and
               shell scripts to be executed is typically called a
               bin  directory.   The standard system bin directo-
               ries are `/bin' containing the most  heavily  used
               commands  and `/usr/bin' which contains most other
               user programs.  Programs developed at UC  Berkeley
               live in `/usr/ucb', while locally written programs
               live in  `/usr/local'.   Games  are  kept  in  the
               directory `/usr/games'.  You can place binaries in
               any directory.  If you wish to execute them often,
               the  name of the directories should be a component
               of the variable path.

break          Break is a builtin command used to exit from loops
               within the control structure of the shell (3.7).

breaksw        The breaksw builtin command is used to exit from a
               switch control structure, like a break exits  from
               loops (3.7).

builtin        A command executed directly by the shell is called
               a builtin command.  Most commands in UNIX are  not
               built into the shell, but rather exist as files in
               bin directories.  These  commands  are  accessible









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               because  the  directories in which they reside are
               named in the path variable.

case           A case command is used as  a  label  in  a  switch
               statement  in the shell's control structure, simi-
               lar to that of the language C.  Details are  given
               in the shell documentation `csh (1)' (3.7).

cat            The  cat  program  catenates  a  list of specified
               files on the standard output.  It is usually  used
               to  look  at  the contents of a single file on the
               terminal, to `cat a file' (1.8, 2.3).

cd             The cd command  is  used  to  change  the  working
               directory.   With  no  arguments,  cd changes your
               working directory to be your home directory  (2.4,
               2.7).

chdir          The chdir command is a synonym for cd.  Cd is usu-
               ally used because it is easier to type.

chsh           The chsh command is used to change the shell which
               you  use on UNIX.  By default, you use a different
               version of the shell which resides  in  `/bin/sh'.
               You can change your shell to `/bin/csh' by doing

                    chsh your-login-name /bin/csh

               Thus I would do

                    chsh bill /bin/csh

               It  is  only  necessary to do this once.  The next
               time you log in to UNIX after doing this  command,
               you  will  be  using  csh rather than the shell in
               `/bin/sh' (1.9).

cmp            Cmp is a program which compares files.  It is usu-
               ally  used on binary files, or to see if two files
               are identical (3.6).  For comparing text files the
               program diff, described in `diff (1)' is used.

command        A  function performed by the system, either by the
               shell (a builtin command) or by a program residing
               in  a  file in a directory within the UNIX system,
               is called a command (1.1).

command name
               When a command is issued, it consists of a command
               name, which is the first word of the command, fol-
               lowed by arguments.  The  convention  on  UNIX  is
               that  the  first word of a command names the func-
               tion to be performed (1.1).










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command substitution
               The replacement of a command enclosed in ``' char-
               acters  by  the  text  output  by  that command is
               called command substitution (4.3).

component      A part of a pathname  between  `/'  characters  is
               called  a  component of that pathname.  A variable
               which has multiple strings as  value  is  said  to
               have  several  components; each string is a compo-
               nent of the variable.

continue       A builtin command which causes  execution  of  the
               enclosing  foreach  or  while loop to cycle prema-
               turely.  Similar to the continue  command  in  the
               programming language C (3.6).

control-       Certain special characters, called control charac-
               ters, are produced by holding down the CONTROL key
               on   your  terminal  and  simultaneously  pressing
               another character, much like the SHIFT key is used
               to  produce  upper case characters. Thus control-c
               is produced by holding down the CONTROL key  while
               pressing the `c' key.  Usually UNIX prints a caret
               (^) followed by the corresponding letter when  you
               type  a control character (e.g. `^C' for control-c
               (1.8).

core dump      When a program terminates abnormally,  the  system
               places  an  image  of  its current state in a file
               named `core'.  This core dump can be examined with
               the  system  debugger  `adb  (1)'  or `sdb (1)' in
               order to determine what went wrong with  the  pro-
               gram  (1.8).   If  the shell produces a message of
               the form

                    Illegal instruction (core dumped)

               (where `Illegal instruction' is only one  of  sev-
               eral possible messages), you should report this to
               the author of the program or a system  administra-
               tor, saving the `core' file.

cp             The cp (copy) program is used to copy the contents
               of one file into another file.  It is one  of  the
               most commonly used UNIX commands (1.6).

csh            The  name  of the shell program that this document
               describes.

.cshrc         The file .cshrc in your home directory is read  by
               each  shell as it begins execution.  It is usually
               used to change the setting of  the  variable  path
               and  to  set  alias  parameters  which are to take
               effect globally (2.1).









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cwd            The cwd variable in the shell holds  the  absolute
               pathname  of the current working directory.  It is
               changed by the shell whenever your current working
               directory changes and should not be changed other-
               wise (2.2).

date           The date command prints the current date and  time
               (1.3).

debugging      Debugging is the process of correcting mistakes in
               programs and shell scripts.  The shell has several
               options  and variables which may be used to aid in
               shell debugging (4.4).

default:       The label default: is  used  within  shell  switch
               statements,  as  it  is in the C language to label
               the code to be executed if none of the case labels
               matches the value switched on (3.7).

DELETE         The  DELETE or RUBOUT key on the terminal normally
               causes an interrupt to be sent to the current job.
               Many  users  change  the interrupt character to be
               ^C.

detached       A command that continues running in the background
               after you logout is said to be detached.

diagnostic     An  error  message  produced by a program is often
               referred to as a diagnostic.  Most error  messages
               are not written to the standard output, since that
               is often directed away  from  the  terminal  (1.3,
               1.5).   Error  messages are instead written to the
               diagnostic output which may be directed away  from
               the  terminal,  but usually is not.  Thus diagnos-
               tics will usually appear on the terminal (2.5).

directory      A structure which contains files.  At any time you
               are in one particular directory whose names can be
               printed by the command  pwd.   The  chdir  command
               will change you to another directory, and make the
               files in that directory visible. The directory  in
               which  you  are  when you first login is your home
               directory (1.1, 2.7).

directory stack
               The shell saves  the  names  of  previous  working
               directories in the directory stack when you change
               your current working directory via the pushd  com-
               mand.  The directory stack can be printed by using
               the dirs  command,  which  includes  your  current
               working  directory  as the first directory name on
               the left (2.7).











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dirs           The dirs  command  prints  the  shell's  directory
               stack (2.7).

du             The  du  command  is  a  program (described in `du
               (1)') which prints the number of  disk  blocks  is
               all  directories  below and including your current
               working directory (2.6).

echo           The echo command prints its arguments (1.6,  3.6).

else           The  else  command  is  part of the `if-then-else-
               endif' control command construct (3.6).

endif          If an if statement is ended with  the  word  then,
               all  lines  following the if up to a line starting
               with the word endif or else are  executed  if  the
               condition between parentheses after the if is true
               (3.6).

EOF            An end-of-file is generated by the terminal  by  a
               control-d, and whenever a command reads to the end
               of a file which it has been given as input.   Com-
               mands  receiving input from a pipe receive an end-
               of-file when the command sending them  input  com-
               pletes.  Most commands terminate when they receive
               an end-of-file.  The shell has an option to ignore
               end-of-file  from  a terminal input which may help
               you keep from logging out accidentally  by  typing
               too many control-d's (1.1, 1.8, 3.8).

escape         A  character `\' used to prevent the special mean-
               ing of a metacharacter is said to escape the char-
               acter from its special meaning.  Thus

                    echo \*

               will echo the character `*' while just

                    echo *

               will  echo  the  names  of the file in the current
               directory.  In this example, \ escapes `*'  (1.7).
               There  is  also  a  non-printing  character called
               escape, usually labelled ESC or ALTMODE on  termi-
               nal  keyboards.   Some older UNIX systems use this
               character to indicate that output is  to  be  sus-
               pended.   Most  systems  use control-s to stop the
               output and control-q to start it.

/etc/passwd    This file contains information about the  accounts
               currently  on  the  system.  It consists of a line
               for each account  with  fields  separated  by  `:'
               characters  (1.8).   You  can look at this file by
               saying









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                    cat /etc/passwd

               The commands finger and grep  are  often  used  to
               search  for information in this file.  See `finger
               (1)',  `passwd(5)',  and  `grep  (1)'   for   more
               details.

exit           The exit command is used to force termination of a
               shell script, and is built into the shell (3.9).

exit status    A command which discovers a  problem  may  reflect
               this  back  to the command (such as a shell) which
               invoked (executed) it.  It does this by  returning
               a  non-zero number as its exit status, a status of
               zero being considered `normal  termination'.   The
               exit  command can be used to force a shell command
               script to give a non-zero exit status (3.6).

expansion      The replacement of  strings  in  the  shell  input
               which  contain  metacharacters by other strings is
               referred to as the process of expansion.  Thus the
               replacement  of  the  word `*' by a sorted list of
               files in the  current  directory  is  a  `filename
               expansion'.   Similarly  the  replacement  of  the
               characters `!!' by the text of the last command is
               a   `history   expansion'.   Expansions  are  also
               referred to as substitutions (1.6, 3.4, 4.2).

expressions    Expressions are used in the shell to  control  the
               conditional  structures  used  in  the  writing of
               shell scripts and in calculating values for  these
               scripts.  The operators available in shell expres-
               sions are those of the language C (3.5).

extension      Filenames often consist of  a  base  name  and  an
               extension separated by the character `.'.  By con-
               vention, groups of related files often  share  the
               same  root  name.   Thus if `prog.c' were a C pro-
               gram, then the object file for this program  would
               be  stored in `prog.o'.  Similarly a paper written
               with the `-me' nroff macro package might be stored
               in  `paper.me'  while  a formatted version of this
               paper might be kept in `paper.out' and a  list  of
               spelling errors in `paper.errs' (1.6).

fg             The  job control command fg is used to run a back-
               ground or suspended job in  the  foreground  (1.8,
               2.6).

filename       Each  file  in UNIX has a name consisting of up to
               14 characters and not including the character  `/'
               which  is  used  in pathname building.  Most file-
               names do not begin with  the  character  `.',  and
               contain only letters and digits with perhaps a `.'









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               separating the base portion of the  filename  from
               an extension (1.6).

filename expansion
               Filename  expansion  uses  the metacharacters `*',
               `?' and `[' and `]' to provide a convenient mecha-
               nism  for  naming files.  Using filename expansion
               it is easy to name all the files  in  the  current
               directory,  or  all files which have a common root
               name. Other filename expansion mechanisms use  the
               metacharacter  `~' and allow files in other users'
               directories to be named easily (1.6, 4.2).

flag           Many UNIX commands accept arguments which are  not
               the  names of files or other users but are used to
               modify the action  of  the  commands.   These  are
               referred  to  as  flag  options, and by convention
               consist of one or more  letters  preceded  by  the
               character  `-'  (1.2).   Thus  the ls (list files)
               command has an option `-s' to list  the  sizes  of
               files.  This is specified

                    ls -s


foreach        The  foreach  command is used in shell scripts and
               at  the  terminal  to  specify  repetition  of   a
               sequence  of commands while the value of a certain
               shell variable ranges  through  a  specified  list
               (3.6, 4.1).

foreground     When commands are executing in the normal way such
               that the shell  is  waiting  for  them  to  finish
               before prompting for another command they are said
               to be foreground jobs  or  running  in  the  fore-
               ground.   This is as opposed to background.  Fore-
               ground jobs can be stopped  by  signals  from  the
               terminal  caused by typing different control char-
               acters at the keyboard (1.8, 2.6).

goto           The shell has a command goto used in shell scripts
               to transfer control to a given label (3.7).

grep           The  grep command searches through a list of argu-
               ment files for a specified string.  Thus

                    grep bill /etc/passwd

               will print each line in the file /etc/passwd which
               contains  the string `bill'.  Actually, grep scans
               for regular expressions in the sense of  the  edi-
               tors  `ed  (1)'  and  `ex  (1)'.   Grep stands for
               `globally  find  regular  expression  and   print'
               (2.4).









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head           The head command prints the first few lines of one
               or more files.  If you have a bunch of files  con-
               taining  text  which you are wondering about it is
               sometimes useful to run head with these  files  as
               arguments.   This will usually show enough of what
               is in these files to let you decide which you  are
               interested in (1.5).
               Head  is also used to describe the part of a path-
               name before and including the last `/'  character.
               The  tail of a pathname is the part after the last
               `/'.  The `:h' and `:t' modifiers allow  the  head
               or  tail  of a pathname stored in a shell variable
               to be used (3.6).

history        The history mechanism of the shell allows previous
               commands  to be repeated, possibly after modifica-
               tion to correct typing mistakes or to  change  the
               meaning  of  the command.  The shell has a history
               list where these commands are kept, and a  history
               variable  which  controls  how  large this list is
               (2.3).

home directory
               Each user has a home directory, which is given  in
               your  entry  in  the  password  file, /etc/passwd.
               This is the directory which you are placed in when
               you  first login.  The cd or chdir command with no
               arguments takes you back to this directory,  whose
               name  is recorded in the shell variable home.  You
               can also access  the  home  directories  of  other
               users in forming filenames using a filename expan-
               sion notation and the character `~' (1.6).

if             A conditional command within  the  shell,  the  if
               command  is  used in shell command scripts to make
               decisions about what course of action to take next
               (3.6).

ignoreeof      Normally,  your shell will exit, printing `logout'
               if you type a control-d at a prompt of `% '.  This
               is  the  way  you usually log off the system.  You
               can set the ignoreeof variable if you wish in your
               .login  file  and  then  use the command logout to
               logout.  This is useful if you sometimes  acciden-
               tally  type too many control-d characters, logging
               yourself off (2.2).

input          Many commands on UNIX take  information  from  the
               terminal  or  from  files  which they then act on.
               This information is called input.   Commands  nor-
               mally  read  for  input  from their standard input
               which is, by default, the terminal.  This standard
               input  can be redirected from a file using a shell
               metanotation  with  the   character   `<'.    Many









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               commands  will  also read from a file specified as
               argument.  Commands placed in pipelines will  read
               from  the  output  of  the previous command in the
               pipeline.  The  leftmost  command  in  a  pipeline
               reads  from  the  terminal if you neither redirect
               its input nor give it a filename to use  as  stan-
               dard  input.  Special mechanisms exist for supply-
               ing input to commands in shell scripts (1.5, 3.8).

interrupt      An interrupt is a signal to a program that is gen-
               erated by typing ^C. (On older  versions  of  UNIX
               the  RUBOUT  or DELETE key were used for this pur-
               pose.)  It causes most programs to stop execution.
               Certain  programs,  such as the shell and the edi-
               tors, handle an interrupt in special ways, usually
               by  stopping what they are doing and prompting for
               another command.  While  the  shell  is  executing
               another  command and waiting for it to finish, the
               shell does not listen to  interrupts.   The  shell
               often wakes up when you hit interrupt because many
               commands die when they receive an interrupt  (1.8,
               3.9).

job            One  or more commands typed on the same input line
               separated  by  `|'  or  `;'  characters  are   run
               together  and  are  called a job.  Simple commands
               run by themselves without any `|' or  `;'  charac-
               ters  are  the simplest jobs.  Jobs are classified
               as foreground, background, or suspended (2.6).

job control    The builtin functions that control  the  execution
               of  jobs  are  called job control commands.  These
               are bg, fg, stop, kill (2.6).

job number     When each job is started it is  assigned  a  small
               number  called  a job number which is printed next
               to the job in the  output  of  the  jobs  command.
               This  number,  preceded by a `%' character, can be
               used as an argument to  job  control  commands  to
               indicate a specific job (2.6).

jobs           The  jobs command prints a table showing jobs that
               are either running in the background or  are  sus-
               pended (2.6).

kill           A command which sends a signal to a job causing it
               to terminate (2.6).

.login         The file .login in your home directory is read  by
               the shell each time you login to UNIX and the com-
               mands there are executed.  There are a  number  of
               commands  which  are  usefully  placed here, espe-
               cially set commands to the shell itself (2.1).










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login shell    The shell that is started on  your  terminal  when
               you  login is called your login shell.  It is dif-
               ferent from other shells which you may  run  (e.g.
               on shell scripts) in that it reads the .login file
               before reading commands from the terminal  and  it
               reads the .logout file after you logout (2.1).

logout         The  logout  command causes a login shell to exit.
               Normally, a login shell will  exit  when  you  hit
               control-d  generating  an  end-of-file, but if you
               have set ignoreeof in you .login  file  then  this
               will  not  work and you must use logout to log off
               the UNIX system (2.8).

.logout        When you log off of UNIX the  shell  will  execute
               commands from the file .logout in your home direc-
               tory after it prints `logout'.

lpr            The command lpr is the line printer  daemon.   The
               standard  input  of lpr spooled and printed on the
               UNIX line printer.  You can also give lpr  a  list
               of  filenames  as  arguments to be printed.  It is
               most common to use lpr as the last component of  a
               pipeline (2.3).

ls             The  ls  (list  files)  command is one of the most
               commonly used UNIX  commands.   With  no  argument
               filenames  it prints the names of the files in the
               current directory.  It has a number of useful flag
               arguments,  and  can  also  be  given the names of
               directories as arguments, in which case  it  lists
               the names of the files in these directories (1.2).

mail           The mail program is used to send and receive  mes-
               sages  from  other  UNIX users (1.1, 2.1), whether
               they are logged on or not.

make           The make command is used to maintain one  or  more
               related files and to organize functions to be per-
               formed on these files.  In many ways make is  eas-
               ier  to  use,  and more helpful than shell command
               scripts (3.2).

makefile       The file containing commands for  make  is  called
               makefile or Makefile (3.2).

manual         The manual often referred to is the `UNIX manual'.
               It contains 8 numbered sections with a description
               of  each  UNIX  program  (section  1), system call
               (section 2), subroutine (section 3), device  (sec-
               tion  4), special data structure (section 5), game
               (section 6), miscellaneous item  (section  7)  and
               system  administration program (section 8).  There
               are also supplementary  documents  (tutorials  and









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               reference  guides)  for  individual programs which
               require explanation in  more  detail.   An  online
               version  of  the  manual is accessible through the
               man command.  Its documentation  can  be  obtained
               online via

                    man man

               If  you  can't decide what manual page to look in,
               try the  apropos(1)  command.   The  supplementary
               documents are in subdirectories of /usr/doc.

metacharacter
               Many characters which are neither letters nor dig-
               its have special meaning either to the shell or to
               UNIX.  These characters are called metacharacters.
               If it is necessary to place  these  characters  in
               arguments  to  commands  without them having their
               special meaning then  they  must  be  quoted.   An
               example  of  a  metacharacter is the character `>'
               which is used to indicate placement of output into
               a  file.   For  the purposes of the history mecha-
               nism, most unquoted metacharacters  form  separate
               words  (1.4).   The appendix to this user's manual
               lists the metacharacters in groups by their  func-
               tion.

mkdir          The  mkdir  command is used to create a new direc-
               tory.

modifier       Substitutions with the history mechanism, keyed by
               the  character  `!'   or  of  variables  using the
               metacharacter `$', are often subjected to  modifi-
               cations,  indicated  by  placing the character `:'
               after the substitution and following this with the
               modifier  itself.  The command substitution mecha-
               nism can also be used to perform modification in a
               similar  way,  but  this  notation  is  less clear
               (3.6).

more           The program more writes a file  on  your  terminal
               allowing you to control how much text is displayed
               at a time.  More can move through the file screen-
               ful by screenful, line by line, search forward for
               a string, or start again at the beginning  of  the
               file.   It is generally the easiest way of viewing
               a file (1.8).

noclobber      The shell has a variable noclobber  which  may  be
               set  in  the  file  .login  to  prevent accidental
               destruction of files by the `>' output redirection
               metasyntax of the shell (2.2, 2.5).











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noglob         The  shell  variable noglob is set to suppress the
               filename expansion  of  arguments  containing  the
               metacharacters `~', `*', `?', `[' and `]' (3.6).

notify         The  notify  command  tells the shell to report on
               the termination of a specific  background  job  at
               the  exact  time  it  occurs as opposed to waiting
               until just before the next prompt  to  report  the
               termination.   The notify variable, if set, causes
               the shell to  always  report  the  termination  of
               background jobs exactly when they occur (2.6).

onintr         The  onintr command is built into the shell and is
               used to control the  action  of  a  shell  command
               script when an interrupt signal is received (3.9).

output         Many commands in UNIX result in some lines of text
               which  are  called  their  output.  This output is
               usually placed on what is known  as  the  standard
               output  which  is normally connected to the user's
               terminal.   The  shell  has  a  syntax  using  the
               metacharacter  `>'  for  redirecting  the standard
               output of a command to a file  (1.3).   Using  the
               pipe  mechanism  and  the  metacharacter `|' it is
               also possible for the standard output of one  com-
               mand  to become the standard input of another com-
               mand (1.5).  Certain commands  such  as  the  line
               printer daemon p do not place their results on the
               standard output but rather in more  useful  places
               such  as on the line printer (2.3).  Similarly the
               write command places its output on another  user's
               terminal  rather  than  its standard output (2.3).
               Commands also have a diagnostic output where  they
               write  their error messages.  Normally these go to
               the terminal even if the standard output has  been
               sent  to a file or another command, but it is pos-
               sible to direct error diagnostics along with stan-
               dard output using a special metanotation (2.5).

path           The  shell  has  a  variable  path which gives the
               names of the directories in which it searches  for
               the  commands which it is given.  It always checks
               first to see if the command it is given  is  built
               into the shell.  If it is, then it need not search
               for the command as it can do  it  internally.   If
               the   command  is  not  builtin,  then  the  shell
               searches for a file with the name given in each of
               the  directories  in  the  path  variable, left to
               right.  Since the normal definition  of  the  path
               variable is

                    path (. /usr/ucb /bin /usr/bin)

               the shell normally looks in the current directory,









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               and  then  in  the  standard  system   directories
               `/usr/ucb',  `/bin'  and  `/usr/bin' for the named
               command (2.2).  If the command cannot be found the
               shell  will print an error diagnostic.  Scripts of
               shell commands  will  be  executed  using  another
               shell  to  interpret  them  if they have `execute'
               permission set.  This is normally true  because  a
               command of the form

                    chmod 755 script

               was  executed  to  turn this execute permission on
               (3.3).  If you add new commands to a directory  in
               the  path,  you  should  issue  the command rehash
               (2.2).

pathname       A list of  names,  separated  by  `/'  characters,
               forms a pathname.  Each component, between succes-
               sive `/' characters, names a  directory  in  which
               the  next component file resides.  Pathnames which
               begin with the character `/' are interpreted rela-
               tive  to  the  root  directory  in the filesystem.
               Other pathnames are interpreted  relative  to  the
               current  directory  as  reported by pwd.  The last
               component of a pathname may name a directory,  but
               usually names a file.

pipeline       A  group of commands which are connected together,
               the standard output of each connected to the stan-
               dard input of the next, is called a pipeline.  The
               pipe mechanism used to connect these  commands  is
               indicated  by  the  shell  metacharacter `|' (1.5,
               2.3).

popd           The  popd  command  changes  the  shell's  working
               directory  to the directory you most recently left
               using the pushd command.  It returns to the direc-
               tory  without  having to type its name, forgetting
               the name of the current working  directory  before
               doing so (2.7).

port           The part of a computer system to which each termi-
               nal is connected is called a  port.   Usually  the
               system  has a fixed number of ports, some of which
               are  connected  to  telephone  lines  for  dial-up
               access,  and  some  of which are permanently wired
               directly to specific terminals.

pr             The pr command is used to prepare listings of  the
               contents  of files with headers giving the name of
               the file and the date and time at which  the  file
               was last modified (2.3).











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printenv       The  printenv command is used to print the current
               setting of variables in the environment (2.8).

process        An instance of  a  running  program  is  called  a
               process (2.6).  UNIX assigns each process a unique
               number when it is started  -  called  the  process
               number.  Process numbers can be used to stop indi-
               vidual processes using the kill or  stop  commands
               when  the  processes  are part of a detached back-
               ground job.

program        Usually synonymous with command; a binary file  or
               shell command script which performs a useful func-
               tion is often called a program.

prompt         Many programs will print a prompt on the  terminal
               when  they expect input.  Thus the editor `ex (1)'
               will print a `:' when it expects input.  The shell
               prompts  for input with `% ' and occasionally with
               `? '  when  reading  commands  from  the  terminal
               (1.1).   The shell has a variable prompt which may
               be set to a different value to change the  shell's
               main  prompt.   This is mostly used when debugging
               the shell (2.8).

pushd          The pushd command, which means  `push  directory',
               changes  the  shell's  working  directory and also
               remembers the current working directory before the
               change is made, allowing you to return to the same
               directory  via  the  popd  command  later  without
               retyping its name (2.7).

ps             The  ps  command is used to show the processes you
               are currently running.  Each process is shown with
               its  unique  process  number, an indication of the
               terminal name it is attached to, an indication  of
               the  state  of the process (whether it is running,
               stopped,  awaiting  some  event  (sleeping),   and
               whether  it is swapped out), and the amount of CPU
               time it has used so far.  The command  is  identi-
               fied  by  printing  some of the words used when it
               was invoked (2.6).  Shells, such as  the  csh  you
               use  to run the ps command, are not normally shown
               in the output.

pwd            The pwd command prints the full  pathname  of  the
               current  working directory.  The dirs builtin com-
               mand is usually a better and faster choice.

quit           The quit signal, generated by a control-\, is used
               to terminate programs which are behaving unreason-
               ably.  It normally  produces  a  core  image  file
               (1.8).










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quotation      The  process by which metacharacters are prevented
               their special meaning, usually by using the  char-
               acter  `' in pairs, or by using the character `\',
               is referred to as quotation (1.7).

redirection    The routing of input or output from or to  a  file
               is  known as redirection of input or output (1.3).

rehash         The rehash command tells the shell to rebuild  its
               internal  table  of  which  commands  are found in
               which directories in your path.  This is necessary
               when  a  new  program is installed in one of these
               directories (2.8).

relative pathname
               A pathname which does not  begin  with  a  `/'  is
               called a relative pathname since it is interpreted
               relative to the current  working  directory.   The
               first  component of such a pathname refers to some
               file or directory in the  working  directory,  and
               subsequent components between `/' characters refer
               to directories below the working directory.  Path-
               names  that  are  not relative are called absolute
               pathnames (1.6).

repeat         The repeat  command  iterates  another  command  a
               specified number of times.

root           The  directory  that  is  at the top of the entire
               directory structure is called the  root  directory
               since  it  is the `root' of the entire tree struc-
               ture of directories.  The name used  in  pathnames
               to  indicate  the root is `/'.  Pathnames starting
               with `/' are said to be absolute since they  start
               at  the  root directory.  Root is also used as the
               part of a pathname that is left after removing the
               extension.  See filename for a further explanation
               (1.6).

RUBOUT         The RUBOUT or DELETE key is often  used  to  erase
               the  previously typed character; some users prefer
               the BACKSPACE for this purpose.  On older versions
               of UNIX this key served as the INTR character.

scratch file   Files whose names begin with a `#' are referred to
               as scratch files,  since  they  are  automatically
               removed  by  the  system after a couple of days of
               non-use, or more frequently if disk space  becomes
               tight (1.3).

script         Sequences  of  shell commands placed in a file are
               called shell command scripts.  It is often  possi-
               ble  to  perform  simple tasks using these scripts
               without writing a program in a language such as C,









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               by  using  the shell to selectively run other pro-
               grams (3.3, 3.10).

set            The builtin set command is used to assign new val-
               ues  to  shell variables and to show the values of
               the current variables.  Many shell variables  have
               special  meaning  to  the  shell  itself.  Thus by
               using the set command the behavior  of  the  shell
               can be affected (2.1).

setenv         Variables  in the environment `environ (5)' can be
               changed by using the setenv builtin command (2.8).
               The  printenv  command  can  be  used to print the
               value of the variables in the environment.

shell          A shell is a command language interpreter.  It  is
               possible  to  write  and  run  your  own shell, as
               shells are no different than any other programs as
               far as the system is concerned.  This manual deals
               with the details of one particular  shell,  called
               csh.

shell script   See script (3.3, 3.10).

signal         A  signal  in UNIX is a short message that is sent
               to a running program  which  causes  something  to
               happen  to  that process.  Signals are sent either
               by typing special control characters on  the  key-
               board  or by using the kill or stop commands (1.8,
               2.6).

sort           The sort program sorts a sequence of lines in ways
               that can be controlled by argument flags (1.5).

source         The  source  command causes the shell to read com-
               mands from a specified file.  It  is  most  useful
               for  reading  files  such as .cshrc after changing
               them (2.8).

special character
               See metacharacters and the appendix to  this  man-
               ual.

standard       We  refer often to the standard input and standard
               output of commands.  See input  and  output  (1.3,
               3.8).

status         A  command  normally returns a status when it fin-
               ishes.  By convention a status of  zero  indicates
               that  the  command succeeded.  Commands may return
               non-zero status to  indicate  that  some  abnormal
               event  has occurred.  The shell variable status is
               set to the status returned by  the  last  command.
               It  is most useful in shell command scripts (3.6).









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stop           The stop command causes a background job to become
               suspended (2.6).

string         A sequential group of characters taken together is
               called a string.  Strings can contain  any  print-
               able characters (2.2).

stty           The stty program changes certain parameters inside
               UNIX which determine how your terminal is handled.
               See `stty (1)' for a complete description (2.6).

substitution   The  shell  implements  a  number of substitutions
               where sequences indicated  by  metacharacters  are
               replaced  by other sequences.  Notable examples of
               this  are  history  substitution  keyed   by   the
               metacharacter  `!' and variable substitution indi-
               cated by `$'.  We also refer to  substitutions  as
               expansions (3.4).

suspended      A  job  becomes  suspended  after a STOP signal is
               sent to it, either by typing a  control-z  at  the
               terminal  (for  foreground  jobs)  or by using the
               stop command (for  background  jobs).   When  sus-
               pended,  a  job temporarily stops running until it
               is restarted by either the fg or bg command (2.6).

switch         The  switch  command of the shell allows the shell
               to select one of a number of sequences of commands
               based on an argument string.  It is similar to the
               switch statement in the language C (3.7).

termination    When a command which is being executed finishes we
               say  it undergoes termination or terminates.  Com-
               mands normally terminate when they read an end-of-
               file from their standard input.  It is also possi-
               ble to  terminate  commands  by  sending  them  an
               interrupt  or quit signal (1.8).  The kill program
               terminates specified jobs (2.6).

then           The then command is part of the shell's  `if-then-
               else-endif'  control  construct  used  in  command
               scripts (3.6).

time           The time command can be used to measure the amount
               of  CPU and real time consumed by a specified com-
               mand as well as the amount  of  disk  i/o,  memory
               used, and number of page faults and swaps taken by
               the command (2.1, 2.8).

tset           The tset program is used to set standard erase and
               kill  characters  and to tell the system what kind
               of terminal you are using.  It is often invoked in
               a .login file (2.1).










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tty            The  word  tty  is  a  historical abbreviation for
               `teletype' which is frequently  used  in  UNIX  to
               indicate  the  port  to  which a given terminal is
               connected.  The tty command will print the name of
               the   tty  or  port  to  which  your  terminal  is
               presently connected.

unalias        The unalias command removes aliases (2.8).

UNIX           UNIX is an operating system  on  which  csh  runs.
               UNIX provides facilities which allow csh to invoke
               other programs such as editors and text formatters
               which you may wish to use.

unset          The unset command removes the definitions of shell
               variables (2.2, 2.8).

variable expansion
               See variables and expansion (2.2, 3.4).

variables      Variables in csh  hold  one  or  more  strings  as
               value.   The  most  common  use of variables is in
               controlling the behavior of the shell.  See  path,
               noclobber,  and ignoreeof for examples.  Variables
               such as argv are also used in writing  shell  pro-
               grams (shell command scripts) (2.2).

verbose        The  verbose  shell  variable  can be set to cause
               commands to  be  echoed  after  they  are  history
               expanded.  This is often useful in debugging shell
               scripts.  The  verbose  variable  is  set  by  the
               shell's -v command line option (3.10).

wc             The  wc  program  calculates the number of charac-
               ters, words, and lines in the  files  whose  names
               are given as arguments (2.6).

while          The  while  builtin  control  construct is used in
               shell command scripts (3.7).

word           A sequence of characters which forms  an  argument
               to  a  command  is called a word.  Many characters
               which are neither letters, digits,  `-',  `.'  nor
               `/'  form words all by themselves even if they are
               not surrounded by blanks.  Any sequence of charac-
               ters  may  be  made  into a word by surrounding it
               with `'' characters except for the characters  `''
               and  `!'  which  require  special treatment (1.1).
               This process  of  placing  special  characters  in
               words  without  their  special  meaning  is called
               quoting.

working directory
               At any  given  time  you  are  in  one  particular









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               directory,  called  your  working directory.  This
               directory's name is printed by the pwd command and
               the files listed by ls are the ones in this direc-
               tory.  You can change  working  directories  using
               chdir.

write          The  write  command is an obsolete way of communi-
               cating with other users who are logged in to  UNIX
               (you  have to take turns typing).  If you are both
               using display terminals,  use  talk(1),  which  is
               much more pleasant.

















































